Umlando Wokuthuthukiswa Kwezincwadi Zomhlaba
Izincwadi zomhlaba ziyisibuko sempucuko yabantu. Ngemisebenzi yobuciko, singabona ukuthi abantu baqonda kanjani impilo, bakhe izindinganiso, bagubhe ubuhle, futhi ngasikhathi sinye bagxeke amandla nokungabi nabulungisa. Umlando wentuthuko yezincwadi zomhlaba awuyona into eqondile, kodwa udlula ezinkathini ezahlukene, ezifundeni, ezilimini, namasiko. Kusukela ezindabeni zomlomo ezihlatshelelwa eduze komlilo wekamu kuya kumanoveli anamuhla kanye nezincwadi zedijithali, izincwadi ziyaqhubeka nokuguquka ngokwendlela umphakathi osebenza ngayo. Okulandelayo umbono olandelanayo wohambo olude lwezincwadi zomhlaba.
1. Izincwadi Zomlomo: Izimpande Zasekuqaleni
Esikhathini eside ngaphambi kokuba abantu basungule ukubhala, izincwadi zazikhona ngomlomo. Izinganekwane, izinganekwane zokudala, izinganekwane zamaqhawe, iziphonso, nezingoma zemicikilisho zazidluliselwa ezizukulwaneni ngezizukulwane. La masiko ayengewona nje ukuzijabulisa, kodwa futhi ayengamathuluzi emfundo yokuziphatha, izincazelo zezehlakalo zemvelo, ukuqinisa ubuwena beqembu, kanye nendlela yokugcina umlando.
Izinganekwane ezifana ne-Iliad ne-Odyssey, kamuva ezabhalwa eGrisi, zisekelwe emasikweni adluliselwa ngomlomo. Amasiko afanayo akhona nakwezinye izingxenye zomhlaba: izindaba zama-griot eNtshonalanga Afrika, izindaba nezinkondlo ezihlatshelelwa ezweni laseMalay, kanye nezindaba ezidumile eNdiya ezakhula zaba yiMahabharata neRamayana. Izincwadi ezidluliselwa ngomlomo ziphawula isikhathi lapho amagama ayeqondwa njenganamandla—ayengaphilisa, aqalekise, aqinise, noma ahlanganise.
2. Ukuzalwa Kwemibhalo Yasendulo Nezincwadi
Ukuthuthukiswa kokubhala kwavula isahluko esisha. Njengoba benekhono lokurekhoda, izincwadi azisathembeli ngokuphelele enkumbulweni ehlangene. Imisebenzi yasendulo yaqala ukwakha "uhlu" lwamasiko olwaluzohlala izinkulungwane zeminyaka.
Omunye wemisebenzi emidala kakhulu yi-Epic of Gilgamesh evela eMesopotamia, ehlola izingqikithi zokungafi, ubungane, kanye nokwesaba ukufa kwabantu. EGibhithe lasendulo, imibhalo efana neNcwadi Yabafileyo yayihlanganisa imithandazo, ama-mantra, kanye nesiqondiso esingokomoya. EShayina, kwavela imibhalo yakudala efana neShijing (Incwadi Yezingoma), equkethe izinkondlo zabantu nezenkantolo, kanye namasiko efilosofi athonya izincwadi, njengoConfucianism kanye nobuTao.
Phakathi naleso sikhathi, eGrisi naseRoma, izincwadi zachuma: izinhlekelele zika-Aeschylus, uSophocles, no-Euripides; amahlaya ka-Aristophanes; kanye nezinkondlo ezinde nezinezingoma ezakha isisekelo semfundiso yobuhle baseNtshonalanga. ERoma, uVirgil wabhala i-Aeneid, i-epic eyayihlanganisa izinganekwane kanye nenkulumo-ze yezepolitiki.
3. Izincwadi Zasendulo: Inkolo, Ama-Epic, kanye Nothando
Inkathi Ephakathi (cishe ngekhulu lesi-5 kuya kwele-15) ivame ukuhlotshaniswa nokubusa kwenkolo, kodwa kwakuphakathi nalesi sikhathi lapho izincwadi zasakazeka kabanzi kuzo zonke izilimi nezinhlobo. EYurophu, imisebenzi ephefumulelwe ubuKrestu yachuma, kanye nezincwadi eziqanjiwe zobuqhawe ezifana noBeowulf kanye neNgoma kaRoland. Izindaba zeNkosi u-Arthur kanye namaKnights of the Round Table zaveza isiko lothando, zigcizelela uthando, udumo kanye nokuzijabulisa.
Ezweni lamaSulumane, izincwadi zathola inkathi yegolide. Izinkondlo zesi-Arabhu zathuthuka ngamandla obuciko bokukhuluma, kanti iPheresiya yazala izimbongi ezinkulu ezifana noRumi, uHafez, noFerdowsi ngeShahnameh. Kulesi siko, izingqikithi zothando oluyimfihlakalo, ukufuna uNkulunkulu, kanye nokuzindla ngokuziphatha kuyabusa. Iqoqo lezindaba ze-One Thousand and One Nights liphinde libonise ukukhanga kwezindaba ezihleliwe ezicebile ngamahlaya, inhlekelele kanye nemicabango.
EMpumalanga Asia, iJapane yakhiqiza imisebenzi emikhulu efana nethi The Tale of Genji (Murasaki Shikibu), evame ukubizwa ngokuthi inoveli yokuqala emhlabeni, ngenxa yokuchazwa kwayo okuningiliziwe kwengqondo nokuphila kwasenkantolo. Amasiko okubhala ase-Asia abonisa ukuthi ukusungula izindaba ezintsha akuzange kuqale eNtshonalanga kuphela.
4. Ukuvuselelwa kanye noBuntu: Abantu eSikhungweni
I-Renaissance (yekhulu le-14 kuya kwele-17) yaphawula ukuphinda kuthakazelelwe ezincwadini zakudala zamaGreki namaRoma kanye nokuzalwa kobuntu—umbono owabeka isintu, ukucabanga, kanye nokuhlangenwe nakho kwezwe endaweni ebalulekile. E-Italy, uDante wabhala i-Divine Comedy, uPetrarch wasungula i-sonnet, kanti uBoccaccio wabhala i-Decameron, eyayihlanganisa indaba yothando, ihlaya, kanye nokugxekwa komphakathi.
ENgilandi, uShakespeare wayefanekisela isiqongo sedrama yeRenaissance. Imisebenzi yakhe yabonisa ubunzima besintu: isifiso sokuvelela, umona, uthando, amandla, kanye nenhlekelele yokuziphatha. ESpain, uCervantes wabhala uDon Quixote, umsebenzi ovame ukubhekwa njengophawu olubalulekile enoveli yanamuhla ngenxa yokudlala kwawo phakathi kweqiniso nomcabango, kanye nokugxeka kwawo ubuqhawe bothando.
Ukusungulwa kukaGutenberg komshini wokunyathelisa kwasheshisa ukusabalala kwezincwadi. Izincwadi zaba lula ukuzifinyelela, kancane kancane zisuka ekubuseni kwezinkantolo nezikhungo zenkolo zaya endaweni yomphakathi ebanzi.
5. Ukukhanyiselwa Nokuzalwa Kwenoveli Yanamuhla
Ekhulwini le-17 nele-18, i-Enlightenment yagcizelela ukucabanga, isayensi, kanye nokugxekwa kwegunya lendabuko. Izincwadi zaba yindlela yempikiswano yezenhlalo neyezepolitiki. EFrance, uVoltaire wabhala izihlaya zefilosofi; eNgilandi, kwavela imisebenzi efana neRobinson Crusoe (Defoe) kanye ne-Gulliver's Travels (Swift), ehlanganisa uhambo nokugxekwa okukhulu komphakathi.
Phakathi nalesi sikhathi, inoveli yathuthuka njengohlobo olubalulekile. Yayikwazi ukuveza impilo yansuku zonke, isigaba senhlalo, kanye noshintsho lwezomnotho. Yanikeza isikhala kubalingiswa "abavamile", hhayi amaqhawe, futhi yaveza amaqiniso aseduze nabafundi.
6. Uthando, Ubunjalo, kanye Nobunjalo Bemvelo
Ikhulu le-19 laphawulwa ukusabela ngokumelene nokucabanga kokukhanya. I-Romanticism yagcizelela imizwa, umcabango, imvelo, kanye nenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye. Izimbongi ezifana noWordsworth noGoethe zaqokomisa ulwazi lwangaphakathi kanye nokufuna incazelo yokuphila. Lesi sikhathi sabona nokuzalwa kwemisebenzi ye-gothic kanye ne-dark fantasy eyandisa imingcele yezincwadi.
Nokho, ukuthuthukiswa kwezimboni kanye noshintsho kwezenhlalo kwazala i-Realism: izincwadi ezazifuna ukuveza impilo njengoba yayinjalo. UCharles Dickens waqokomisa ubumpofu basemadolobheni; UTolstoy noDostoevsky bahlola ubunzima bokuziphatha kanye nobengqondo; UBalzac wadweba umphakathi waseFrance ngokuningiliziwe. Ngemva kwalokho, i-Naturalism yasunduza i-realism ngokweqile, igcizelela i-determinism—ukuthi abantu bakhiwe yizici zemvelo, ezomnotho, kanye ne-biological.
7. I-Modernism: Ukuhlolwa Kwamafomu Amasha Nokuqaphela
Ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20 kwaletha izingxabano ezinkulu: izimpi zomhlaba, ukuwa kwemibuso, ukufudukela kwabantu emadolobheni, kanye nenkinga yobunikazi. Isimanjemanje savela ngenxa yalokho, sazama ngesimo nolimi. Izindaba zazingasadingeki zibe ziqondile; izigcawu zazingahlukaniswa; imicabango yabalingiswa yayingageleza ngokukhululeka ngomfudlana wokuqonda.
UJames Joyce, uVirginia Woolf, noFranz Kafka bakhiqize imisebenzi ethwebula ukuhlukaniswa komuntu wanamuhla. Izinkondlo zika-T.S. Eliot zathwebula ukuhlukana kwesiko eliqhekekile. I-Modernism yabonisa ukuthi izincwadi azigcini nje ngokulandisa izindaba kodwa futhi ziyabuza indlela izindaba ezilandiswa ngayo.
8. Izincwadi Zangemva Kwesimanje Nezanamuhla: Amazwi Amaningi, Imibono Eminingi
Ngemva kweMpi Yezwe II, kwavela i-postmodernism, yenqaba amaqiniso alodwa futhi ivame ukudlala ngokuhlekisa, ukuhlekisa, kanye nokuqagela. Imisebenzi ye-Postmodern yayingabaza imingcele phakathi kweqiniso nenganekwane, umbhali nomfundi, umlando kanye nokulandisa.
Ngesikhathi esifanayo, izincwadi zomhlaba ziya ngokuya ziba neziningi. Amazwi avela emazweni angemva kobukoloni ayakhula, ekhuluma ngezihloko zobunikazi, ukuhlukumezeka kwamakoloni, ukufuduka, kanye nokumelana namasiko. Izincwadi zaseLatin America ziyathuthuka ngokusebenzisa ubuqiniso bemilingo—isitayela sokuxoxa izindaba esihlanganisa iqiniso lezenhlalo nezici ezimangalisayo. Izincwadi zase-Afrika, zaseNingizimu Asia, nezaseNingizimu-mpumalanga ye-Asia nazo ziyaxoxwa kabanzi emhlabeni jikelele.
Esikhathini samanje, izincwadi nazo zixhumene nobuchwepheshe: izincwadi ze-e, amapulatifomu okubhala aku-inthanethi, kanye nezindlela zokulandisa ezisebenzisanayo. Ngenkathi abezindaba beshintsha, isidingo sabantu sezindaba sisafana: ukuziqonda thina kanye nomhlaba.
I-Penutup
Umlando wokuthuthukiswa kwezincwadi zomhlaba ungumlando wezinguquko endleleni abantu abakhuluma ngayo ngokuphila. Kusukela ezinganekwaneni zomlomo kuya kumanoveli anamuhla, kusukela ezinkondlweni ezingokomoya kuya ekugconeni kwezepolitiki, izincwadi bezilokhu ziyindawo yokuhlangana phakathi komcabango neqiniso. Zigcina inkumbulo ehlangene, ziveza ukugxekwa, zikhuthaza uzwela, futhi zicebisa ulimi. Yingakho izincwadi zomhlaba zingapheli—ziyaqhubeka nokuguquka njengoba abantu beqhubeka nokubuza imibuzo, bephupha, futhi befuna incazelo ohambweni lwempucuko.
