Ubukhosi bukaQing kanye nokuthuthukiswa kweShayina
Ubukhosi bukaQing (1644–1912) bunesikhundla esiyingqayizivele emlandweni waseShayina: babuwubukhosi bokugcina bombuso kanye nebhuloho elibuthakathaka lokuzalwa kweShayina yanamuhla. Esikhathini esicishe sibe amakhulu amathathu eminyaka, iQing yabhekana nezigaba zokwanda nokuchuma, kwabe sekuba nokushaqeka okukhulu okuvela ezinguqukweni zomnotho zomhlaba, ukungena kobukhosi baseNtshonalanga, kanye nezinkinga zangaphakathi ezaphoqa izwe—kancane kancane kodwa ngokuqinisekile—ukuba licabange kabusha ngendlela elaliphatha ngayo uhulumeni walo, ezempi, isayensi, kanye nomphakathi. Ukuthuthukiswa kweShayina akunakuqondwa ngaphandle kokuhlola ukuthi iQing yasabela kanjani kulezi zinselele: ngezinye izikhathi ngokuzivumelanisa nezimo, ngokuvamile sekwephuzile kakhulu, futhi ekugcineni akwanele ukusindisa ubukhosi.
Isizinda sokusungulwa kweQing kanye nesakhiwo samandla
Ubukhosi beQing basungulwa nguManchus ovela enyakatho-mpumalanga. Ngemva kokuwa koBukhosi beMing ngenxa yengxabano yangaphakathi kanye nokuvukela, amabutho eManchu angena eBeijing ngo-1644 futhi aqinisa amandla awo. Ukuze alawule indawo enkulu, okwakuyiHan ngokuyinhloko, iQing yasungula isu lokubusa elalihlanganisa amandla empi aseManchu (uhlelo "lwamaBhanela Ayisishiyagalombili") kanye nehhovisi likaConfucian elaligxilile enkathini edlule. Uhlelo lokuhlola ubukhosi lwagcinwa, okuvumela izazi zeHan ukuthi ziqhubeke nemisebenzi yazo yokuphatha, kuyilapho ukwethembeka kwezepolitiki kwakulawulwa ngezakhiwo zobukhosi kanye namanethiwekhi okuqapha.
Ngekhulu le-17 nele-18, uMbuso weQing wafinyelela esicongweni sawo ngesikhathi sokubusa kwababusi baseKangxi, Yongzheng, kanye neQianlong. Umbuso wanda, wagcina ukuzinza okulinganiselwe, futhi wakhula emnothweni wezolimo. Kodwa-ke, le mpumelelo yafihla izinkinga zesakhiwo: ukwanda kwabantu, ingcindezi emhlabeni wezolimo, inkohlakalo yezikhulu zikahulumeni, kanye nokushiyeka kwezobuchwepheshe ngemuva kwamandla ezimboni akhula eYurophu.
Ukungqubuzana nomhlaba wanamuhla: ukuhweba kanye nezimpi ze-opium
Ukuqala kokuthuthukiswa kwesimanje—ngomqondo “wokuzivumelanisa nezimo okuphoqelelwe”—kwavela ekungqubuzaneni kweQing nesimiso somnotho somhlaba wonke esishintsha ngokushesha. Ngekhulu le-18, ukuhwebelana neYurophu kwanda, kodwa iQing yanciphisa ubudlelwano bezohwebo ngesistimu yaseCanton. IBrithani, ibhekene nokuntuleka kwesiliva ngenxa yokungeniswa kwetiye nesilika evela eShayina, yabe isikhuthaza ukuhweba nge-opium evela eNdiya kuya emakethe yaseShayina. Umthelela wawubi kakhulu empilweni yomphakathi futhi walimaza ukuzinza komnotho.
Njengoba uhulumeni we-Qing ezama ukuqeda ukuhweba nge-opium, ingxabano neBrithani yaqala yaba yiMpi ye-Opium (1839-1842) kanye neMpi Yesibili ye-Opium (1856-1860). Ukunqotshwa kwe-Qing kwakungeyona nje impi kuphela, kodwa futhi kwakungokwengqondo nangokwezikhungo: uchungechunge "lwezivumelwano ezingalingani" lwaphoqa ukuvulwa kwamachweba, ukunikeza izivumelwano, amalungelo angaphandle kwezwe lakwamanye amazwe, kanye nokunikezwa kwezindawo (njenge-Hong Kong). Yilapho ukwenziwa kwesimanje kwaba khona uhlelo olungenakugwenywa: i-Qing yaqaphela ukuthi izikhali zendabuko, imikhumbi, kanye nezinhlangano zempi zazinganele ukumelana nezidingo zesizwe esithuthukile.
Inkinga yangaphakathi: ukuvukela okukhulu kanye nobuthakathaka bombuso
Izingcindezi zangaphandle zazihambisana nokuqhuma kwangaphakathi. Ukuvukela kukaTaiping (1850–1864) kwakungenye yezimpi zombango ezibulala kakhulu emlandweni wesintu. Kwanyakazisa umnotho weQing, ukuphatha, kanye nokusemthethweni. Ngaphezu kweTaiping, kwakukhona ukuvukela kukaNian, kanye nezingxabano eningizimu-ntshonalanga nasenyakatho-ntshonalanga. Ukuze kuqedwe ukungezwani, iQing yathembela kakhulu emabuthweni esifunda aholwa yizicukuthwane zendawo ezifana noZeng Guofan noLi Hongzhang. Esikhathini esifushane, leli cebo lasebenza kahle; kodwa esikhathini eside, lanciphisa ukulawula okuphakathi futhi lavula indlela yokuhlukana kwamandla okwakuzochaza inkathi yenkosi yempi kamuva.
Le nkinga yangaphakathi nayo yembule isifundo esibuhlungu: ukuthuthukiswa kwesimanje akugcini nje ngokuthenga izikhali, kodwa futhi kumayelana namandla kahulumeni—imali engenayo, ukuphatha, ukuxhumana, kanye nekhono lokuhlanganisa izindawo ezinkulu.
Ukunyakaza Okuziqinisayo: Ukuthuthukiswa Kwesimanje “Okungenanhliziyo Engaphelele”
Umzamo obaluleke kakhulu wokuthuthukisa isimanje wesikhathi samaphakathi ne-Qing wawaziwa ngokuthi yi-Self-Strengthening Movement, eyaqala ngawo-1860. Izimiso zayo zivame ukufingqwa ngokuthi “ukwamukela ubuchwepheshe baseNtshonalanga ukuqinisa uhlelo lwamaConfucian,” noma okuthandwa kakhulu: “isayensi yaseNtshonalanga yokusetshenziswa okungokoqobo, izindinganiso zaseShayina njengesisekelo.” Lolu hlelo lwaluhlanganisa ukwakhiwa kwezindawo zokubeka imikhumbi nezikhali, ukuthengwa kwemishini, ukusungulwa kwezimboni zezikhali, ukuthuthukiswa kwe-telegraph, kanye nokusungulwa kwezikole zezilimi zakwamanye amazwe nezikhungo zokuhumusha.
Kweminye imikhakha, intuthuko ebonakalayo yayibonakala: ukuzalwa kwezimboni zokuqala, ukwanda kwamakhono okukhiqiza izikhali, kanye nokukhula kwehhovisi lobuchwepheshe. Kodwa-ke, le nhlangano yayinobuthakathaka obukhulu. Okokuqala, ukwenziwa kwesimanje kwakungahambisani nokuguqulwa okuphelele kwezepolitiki kanye nezikhungo. Okwesibili, amaphrojekthi ayevame ukuphathwa yizikhulu zesifunda ezincintisanayo, okwaholela ekuhlanganiseni okubuthakathaka kwezwe. Okwesithathu, inkohlakalo kanye nokumelana nama-conservative kwaphazamisa uguquko. Ukwenziwa kwesimanje kwaba "yinhlanganisela" yesimo esidala, hhayi ukuguqulwa kwesakhiwo.
Lokhu kulinganiselwa kwabonakala ngokucacile eMpini Yase-Sino-Japanese (1894-1895). IJapane—esebenzisa iMeiji Restoration kanye nezinguquko ezinkulu—yayinqoba ngokushesha iQing. Lokhu kunqotshwa kwanyakazisa inkolelo yokuthi ubuchwepheshe “banele.” Kwavela ukuthi izikhungo zazibalulekile: imfundo yesimanje, ukubhaliswa kwesizwe, imboni ehlanganisiwe, kanye nohulumeni okwaziyo ukuqoqa izinsiza.
Uguquko Lwezinsuku Eziyikhulu kanye nokusabela kokulondoloza
Ngemva kokunqotshwa kweJapane, izazi eziningi nezikhulu ezishisekela izinguquko zaphoqelela izinguquko ezinkulu kakhulu. I-Hundred Days' Reform (1898), ehlotshaniswa noMbusi waseGuangxu kanye nabantu abanjengoKang Youwei noLiang Qichao, yafuna ukuguqula izinhlelo zemfundo, zokuphatha kanye nezomnotho, isebenzisa ugqozi lwaseJapan nolwaseNtshonalanga. Kodwa-ke, lezi zinguquko zabhekana nokumelana okukhulu namaqembu agcina imithetho enkantolo, ikakhulukazi eduze kweNdlovukazi uDowager Cixi. Izinguquko zanqotshwa, abantu abaningi baboshwa noma babulawa, futhi izwe lalahlekelwa umfutho omkhulu.
Lokhu kwehluleka kwandisa igebe phakathi kombuso nesigaba esisanda kufundiswa. Abantu abaningi baphetha ngokuthi ukwenziwa kwesimanje ngeke kuphumelele uma ubukhosi obuphelele buhlala bukhona.
Inkinga Yama-Boxer kanye “Nezinqubomgomo Ezintsha”: ukwenziwa kwesimanje kwakamuva
Ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20 kwaphawulwa yi-Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901), inhlangano elwa namazwe angaphandle eyaholela ekungeneleleni kwenhlangano yezizwe eziyisishiyagalombili kanye nokunqotshwa kwe-Qing. Ngokumangalisayo, lokhu kwehluleka kwabangela izinguquko ezinkulu kakhulu: "Izinqubomgomo Ezintsha" (Xinzheng) kusukela ngo-1901. Uhulumeni waqala ukwakha uhlelo lwemfundo lwesimanje, ethumela abafundi kwamanye amazwe, eguqula amasosha (kufaka phakathi ukwakheka kwe-New Army), ethuthukisa ukuphathwa kwezimali, futhi—okubaluleke kakhulu—eqeda uhlelo lokuhlolwa lwakudala ngo-1905.
Ukuqedwa kwezivivinyo zakudala kwafanekisela ushintsho olukhulu. Sekungamakhulu eminyaka, izivivinyo ezisekelwe kumbhalo wamaConfucian beziyindlela eyinhloko yokungena ebubungwini kanye nesimo senhlalo. Lapho uhlelo luqedwa, i-Qing yavula indlela yabaphezulu abasha: othisha besikole banamuhla, izintatheli, ochwepheshe bezobuchwepheshe, izikhulu zempi eziqeqeshiwe, kanye nezishoshovu zezombusazwe. Kodwa-ke, lolu shintsho lwafika sekwephuzile kakhulu. Lwanyakazisa isakhiwo esidala ngaphandle kwesikhathi esanele sokusungula ukufaneleka okusha.
Ngasekupheleni kweQing kanye nokuzalwa kweShayina yanamuhla
Ukuthuthukiswa kwe-Qing kwakamuva nakho kwaba nemiphumela engalindelekile: izikhungo ezintsha zakha amandla omphakathi okwakunzima ukuthi inkantolo iwalawule. I-New Army, isibonelo, yaba yisisekelo samaqembu amaningi avukela umbuso. Ngesikhathi esifanayo, ubuzwe bakhula kanye namahloni akhulayo okunqotshwa kwamanye amazwe kanye nentukuthelo yokuvumelana kwama-imperial. Abantu abanjengoSun Yat-sen kanye nenethiwekhi yakhe yokuguqula basakaza imibono yobu-republicanism, umthethosisekelo, kanye "nokusindiswa kwesizwe."
Ngo-1911, kwaqubuka iNguquko yeXinhai, eyabangelwa ukuVukela kweWuchang. Ngesikhashana nje, izifundazwe zamemezela ukuhlukana kwazo neQing. Ngo-1912, umbusi wokugcina, uPuyi, washiya isikhundla sakhe, okwaphawula ukuphela kwesikhathi sobukhosi kanye nokuzalwa kweRiphabhulikhi yaseShayina. Ukuwa kweQing kwakungewona nje umphumela wokuhlasela noma ukuvukela kwamanye amazwe, kodwa kwakuwukuhlanganiswa kwenkinga yokufaneleka, ubuthakathaka bezikhungo, kanye nokuguquguquka okungahambisani.
Isiphetho: ifa le-Qing lokuthuthukiswa kwesimanje
Ubukhosi bukaQing badlulisela impikiswano ekuthuthukisweni kwesimanje kwamaShayina. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, iQing yandisa indawo futhi yazinzisa uhulumeni isikhathi eside, yanikeza izidingo zokuphatha zesifundazwe esikhulu. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, impendulo yeQing ekwenzweni kwesimanje komhlaba yayivame ukuzivikela futhi iqhekeke, ivimbela izinguquko ezidingekayo ekubhekaneni nezimbangela eziyinhloko: amandla ombuso kanye nesakhiwo sezepolitiki. Noma kunjalo, isigaba sokugcina sokuthuthukiswa kwesimanje kwamaQing—imfundo yesimanje, ukuguqulwa kwezempi, izinguquko zehhovisi—sakha isisekelo sezenhlalo nesezikhungo esasizoqhubeka nokuthonya iShayina ekhulwini lama-20.
Ngakho-ke, ukwenziwa kwesimanje kweShayina akuyona nje indaba "yokulibala," kodwa kunalokho indaba yomzabalazo: phakathi kwesiko noshintsho, phakathi kobukhosi kanye nengcindezi yomhlaba wonke, kanye naphakathi kokuguqulwa kancane kancane kanye nezidingo zoguquko. Ubukhosi bukaQing, yize behluleka ukulondoloza ubukhosi, baba yisigaba esiyinhloko lapho umzabalazo omkhulu weShayina yanamuhla waqala khona.
