Ko ngā ngota ngā waeine taketake o te matū e hanga ana i ngā mea katoa o te ao whānui. Ko te mārama ki te hanganga ngota te mea nui ki te mārama ki ngā āhuatanga ā-tinana me te matū e ahu mai ana i te ao me te hangarau hou. Ka matapakihia e tēnei tuhinga te hanganga o te ngota, te hītori o tōna kitenga, ōna wāhanga matua, me te whanaketanga o tō tātou māramatanga ki ngā ngota i roto i te wā.
Hītori o te Kitea o te Atom
Te Ariā Tūatahi o te Atom
I whakaurua tuatahitia te ariā o te ngota e te tohunga whakaaro Kariki tawhito, a Democritus, i te rautau 5 BC. I whakaarohia e ia ko ngā mea katoa he mea tito mai i ngā matūriki iti, kāore e taea te wehewehe, e kiia nei ko "atomos," ko te tikanga i roto i te reo Kariki ko "kāore e taea te tapahi". Heoi, kāore i tino rongonui tēnei ariā i waenga i ngā kaipūtaiao i taua wā, ā, he whakapae noa iho.
Te Ariā Atomika a Dalton
I te tīmatanga o te rautau 19, i whakaarahia anō e John Dalton, he kaipūtaiao Ingarihi, te ariā o ngā ngota mā roto i tana ariā ngota. I whakaarohia e Dalton ko ia huānga he mea tito mai i ngā ngota ōrite, ā, he rerekē ngā taumaha me ngā āhuatanga o ngā ngota o ngā huānga rerekē. E hangai ana tēnei ariā ki te ture o ngā ōwehenga tino tika me te ture o ngā ōwehenga maha, e whakamārama ana i te hononga o ngā ngota ki te hanga i ngā matū matū.
Te Kitenga o ngā Irahiko
I te mutunga o te rautau 19, i kitea e J.J. Thomson ngā irahiko mā roto i āna whakamātautau me ngā ngongo hihi katote. I whakaatu a Thomson he matūriki utu kino ngā irahiko, he iti ake i ngā ngota. Nā tēnei kitenga i puta ai te tauira "pūtini paramu" o te ngota, i tirohia ai ngā ngota he porowhita utu pai me ngā irahiko e marara ana puta noa i a rātou, pērā i ngā karepe maroke i roto i te pūtini.
Te Tauira Atomika a Rutherford
I te tau 1911, nā roto i ngā whakamātautau marara matūriki ārepa, i kitea e Ernest Rutherford he karihi iti, kikī, he pai te utu o ngā ngota i waenganui, ā, i muri mai ka kiia ko te karihi ngota. Ko te nuinga o te papatipu o te ngota kei roto i te karihi, ko ngā irahiko ia e karapoti ana i te karihi i roto i tētahi rohe nui.
Te Tauira Atomika a Bohr
I te tau 1913, i whakawhanakehia e Niels Bohr tētahi tauira taipitopito ake o te ngota i runga i te ariā matū. I whakaarohia e Bohr ko ngā irahiko e neke ana i roto i ngā porowhita motuhake e kiia nei ko ngā anga irahiko, ā, ka taea anake e ngā irahiko te noho i ngā taumata pūngao motuhake. I whakamāramahia e tēnei tauira te whānuitanga rārangi hauwai, ā, i whakaurua mai te ariā o ngā taumata pūngao motuhake.
Hanganga Atomika Hou
Ko te māramatanga hou mō te hanganga ngota e ahu mai ana i te tikanga matūriki, e whakarato ana i tētahi pikitia taipitopito ake mō te whanonga o ngā matūriki iti-ngota pērā i ngā irahiko, ngā porotona, me ngā iōnitā.
Ngā Wāhanga Matua o ngā Atoma
1. Ngā Pūrotana: Ko ngā pūrotana he matūriki utu pai e kitea ana i roto i te karihi o te ngota. Ko te papatipu o ngā pūrotana he tata ki te 1 wae papatipu ngota (u) ā, ka whakatau i te tuakiri o tētahi huānga. Ko te maha o ngā pūrotana i roto i te karihi ka kiia ko te tau ngota.
2. Ngā Neutron: He matūriki kūpapa ngā neutron e kitea ana i roto i te karihi ngota. He tata rite te taumaha o ngā neutron ki ngā porotona, ā, he mea nui tā rātou mahi ki te pumau o te karihi. Ka rerekē pea te maha o ngā neutron i roto i ngā isotope rerekē o te huānga kotahi.
3. Ngā irahiko: He matūriki utu kino ngā irahiko e porowhita ana i te karihi ngota. He iti rawa te papatipu o ngā irahiko ki te whakatauritea ki ngā porotana me ngā niutorone. Ko te tohatoha o ngā irahiko huri noa i te karihi e whakatau ana i ngā āhuatanga matū o te ngota.
Tauira Hangarau Ianuma
Ka whakakapia te tauira miihini irahiko o te ngota e te tauira irahiko tawhito mā te whakamārama i te whanonga o ngā irahiko i roto i ngā ngota mā te whakamahi i ngā mātāpono irahiko. I roto i tēnei tauira, kāore e taea te whakatau tika i te tūranga me te nekehanga o te irahiko i te wā kotahi (te mātāpono koretake o Heisenberg). Ka whakaahuahia ngā irahiko e ngā mahi ngaru (ngā porowhita), e homai ana i te tūponotanga o te kitea o te irahiko i ngā wāhi rerekē huri noa i te karihi.
Ngā Āmiotanga me ngā Taumata Pūngao
Kei roto i ngā angaanga ngā irahiko i roto i ngā ngota, ā, he rerekē ngā āhua me ngā kaha. Ka whakarōpūhia ēnei angaanga ki ngā angaanga irahiko i runga i ō rātou taumata kaha. Ko te tohu o te angaanga irahiko ko tōna tau matua irahiko (n), ā, kei roto i ia angaanga he angaanga iti (s, p, d, f) he rerekē ngā tau irahiko azimuthal (l).
1. Ngā porowhita S: He rite te āhua ki te pōro, ā, kotahi anake te porowhita s i roto i ia anga. Ka taea e te porowhita s te pupuri i te rua o ngā irahiko.
2. Porowhita p: He rite tōna āhua ki te dumbbell, ā, e toru ngā porowhita p i roto i ia anga-iti p. Ka taea e ia porowhita p te pupuri i te rua irahiko, nō reira ka taea e te anga-iti p te pupuri i te ono irahiko.
3. Āmiomio d: He uaua ake tōna āhua, ā, e rima ngā āmiomio d i roto i ia anga-iti d. Ka taea e ia āmiomio d te pupuri i te rua irahiko, nō reira ka taea e te anga-iti d te pupuri i te tekau irahiko.
4. Ngā Ārai f: He uaua ake te āhua, ā, e whitu ngā ārai f i roto i ia anga iti f. Ka taea e ia ārai f te pupuri i te rua irahiko, nō reira ka taea e te anga iti f te pupuri i te tekau mā whā irahiko.
Whirihoranga Irahiko
Ko te whirihoranga irahiko e whakaahua ana i te tohatoha o ngā irahiko i roto i ngā porowhita ngota. Ko te mātāpono Aufbau, te mātāpono aukati Pauli, me te ture a Hund ngā ture matua e whakatau ana i te whirihoranga irahiko i roto i ngā ngota.
1. Mātāpono Aufbau: Ka whakakīia ngā porowhita e ngā irahiko ki te pūngao iti rawa i te tuatahi i mua i te whakakī i ngā porowhita ki te pūngao teitei ake.
2. Te Mātāpono Whakakorenga a Pauli: Ka taea e ia porowhita te whakauru i te mōrahi o ngā irahiko e rua me ngā takahuri rerekē.
3. Te Ture a Hund: Ka noho ngā irahiko ki ngā porowhita kau i roto i te anga iti kotahi i mua i te takirua i roto i te porowhita kotahi hei whakaiti i te pana o ngā irahiko.
Ko tētahi tauira o te whirihoranga irahiko ko te ngota hāora (O), he 8 tōna tau ngota:
\[ 1s^2 2s^2 2p^4 \]
E whakaatu ana tēnei e rua ngā irahiko e whakakī ana i te porowhita 1s, e rua ngā irahiko e whakakī ana i te porowhita 2s, ā, e whā ngā irahiko e whakakī ana i te porowhita 2p.
Te Whakamahinga o te Mārama ki te Hanganga Atomika
He maha ngā tono mahi a te mārama ki te hanganga ngota i roto i te whānuitanga o ngā mara, tae atu ki te matū, te ahupūngao, te rongoā, me te hangarau.
Kimia
He mea nui te mārama ki te hanganga ngota me te whirihoranga irahiko hei whakamārama i ngā āhuatanga matū o ngā huānga me ngā pūhui. Ko ngā taunekeneke i waenga i ngā irahiko valence (ngā irahiko i roto i te anga o waho) o ngā ngota rerekē e whakatau ana i te momo hononga matū i hangaia (te hononga irahiko, te ionic, te konganuku rānei) me ngā āhuatanga matū o te pūhui.
Ahupūngao
I roto i te ahupūngao, he mea nui te hanganga ngota hei mārama ki ngā āhuatanga pēnei i ngā irahiko ngota, te pānga Zeeman, me te aukumetanga. Ko te ariā matū, e whakamārama ana i te hanganga ngota, te pūtake hoki o te whanaketanga o ngā hangarau pēnei i ngā taiaho me ngā haurua-ira.
Hauora
He mea nui te mārama ki te hanganga ngota me ngā taunekeneke i waenga i ngā ngota i roto i te rongoā, inā koa i roto i te whanaketanga o ngā rongoā me ngā maimoatanga. Hei tauira, ko ngā tikanga whakaahua hauora pēnei i te MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) e ahu mai ana i te mātāpono o te aukume aukume o ngā karihi ngota.
hangarau
Mā te hangarau nano, e uru ana ki te whakahaere i ngā ngota me ngā ngota, ka taea te whakawhanake i ngā rauemi hou me ngā āhuatanga whakarei ake, pērā i te kaha, te ngāwari, me te kawe hiko. Ko te mārama ki te hanganga ngota te poutokomanawa o ngā hangarau rokiroki pūngao pērā i ngā pākahiko lithium-ion me ngā pūtau wahie.
Whakamutunga
He mea nui te hanganga ngota ki tō tātou māramatanga ki te ao rauemi. Mai i te ariā tōmua a Democritus mō te ngota ki te tauira irahiko hou, kua tino whanake haere tō tātou māramatanga ki te ngota. Ko ngā ngota he porotana, he neutron, me he irahiko, kua whakaritea i roto i te karihi me ngā porowhita huri noa i te karihi. Mā te māramatanga hohonu ake ki te hanganga ngota, ka taea e tātou te whakamārama i ngā āhuatanga matū me te ā-tinana o te mea, me te whakawhanake i ngā hangarau hou hei whakarerekē i ō tātou oranga. Ka haere tonu te whānui o tēnei māramatanga i te whanaketanga o te pūtaiao me te hangarau, ka whakatakoto i te ara mō ngā kitenga kāore i whakaarohia i mua.
