Ama-athomu ayizinyunithi eziyisisekelo zezinto ezakha konke okusemkhathini. Ukuqonda isakhiwo se-athomu kubalulekile ekuqondeni izenzakalo ezihlukahlukene zomzimba nezamakhemikhali eziyisisekelo sempilo nobuchwepheshe besimanje. Lesi sihloko sizoxoxa ngesakhiwo se-athomu, umlando wokutholakala kwayo, izingxenye zayo eziyinhloko, nokuthi ukuqonda kwethu ama-athomu kuye kwashintsha kanjani ngokuhamba kwesikhathi.
Umlando Wokutholwa Kwe-Athomu
Umqondo Wokuqala We-Athomu
Umqondo we-athomu wethulwa okokuqala yisazi sefilosofi sasendulo samaGreki uDemocritus cishe ngekhulu lesi-5 BC. Waphakamisa ukuthi yonke into yenziwe ngezinhlayiya ezincane, ezingahlukaniseki, ezibizwa ngokuthi "ama-atomos," okusho ukuthi "azinqunywanga" ngesiGreki. Kodwa-ke, lo mbono awuzange uthole ukuthandwa okukhulu phakathi kososayensi ngaleso sikhathi futhi wawunomqondo oqagelayo kakhulu.
Inkolelo-mbono kaDalton ye-Atomic
Ekuqaleni kwekhulu le-19, uJohn Dalton, usosayensi waseNgilandi, wavuselela umqondo wama-athomu ngethiyori yakhe yama-athomu. UDalton waphakamisa ukuthi isakhi ngasinye sakhiwe ngama-athomu afanayo nokuthi ama-athomu ezinto ezahlukene anesisindo nezakhiwo ezahlukene. Lo mbono usekelwe emthethweni wezilinganiso eziqondile kanye nomthetho wezilinganiso eziningi, ochaza ukuthi ama-athomu ahlangana kanjani ukuze akhe amakhemikhali amakhemikhali.
Ukutholakala kwama-Electron
Ngasekupheleni kwekhulu le-19, uJ.J. Thomson wathola ama-electron ngokuhlola kwakhe ngamashubhu emisebe ye-cathode. UThomson wabonisa ukuthi ama-electron ayizinhlayiya ezishajelwe kabi ezincane kakhulu kune-athomu. Lokhu kutholakala kwaveza imodeli ye-athomu ethi "plum pudding", lapho ama-athomu ayebhekwa njengezimbulunga ezishajelwe kahle ezinama-electron ahlakazeke kuzo zonke njengezithelo zomvini epudingini.
Imodeli Ye-Atomic KaRutherford
Ngo-1911, u-Ernest Rutherford, ngokusebenzisa izivivinyo zokusabalala kwezinhlayiya ze-alpha, wathola ukuthi ama-athomu ane-nucleus encane, eqinile, eshajeke kahle enkabeni yawo, kamuva eyabizwa ngokuthi i-nucleus ye-athomu. Iningi lesisindo se-athomu ligxile ku-nucleus, kuyilapho ama-electron ezungeze i-nucleus endaweni enkulu kakhulu.
Imodeli ye-Atomic kaBohr
Ngo-1913, uNiels Bohr wasungula imodeli enemininingwane eminingi ye-athomu esekelwe kumbono we-quantum. UBohr waphakamisa ukuthi ama-electron ahambe ezindaweni ezithile ezibizwa ngokuthi ama-electron shells, nokuthi ama-electron angaba khona kuphela emazingeni athile amandla. Lo modeli wachaza i-hydrogen line spectrum futhi wethula umqondo wamazinga amandla ahlukene.
Isakhiwo Se-Athomu Sanamuhla
Ukuqonda kwanamuhla ngesakhiwo se-athomu kusekelwe ku-quantum mechanics, okunikeza isithombe esiningiliziwe sokuziphatha kwezinhlayiya ezingaphansi kwe-athomu ezifana nama-electron, ama-proton, nama-neutron.
Izingxenye Eziyinhloko Zama-Athomu
1. Ama-Proton: Ama-Proton ayizinhlayiya ezishajelwe kahle ezitholakala kuyi-nucleus ye-athomu. Ama-Proton anesisindo esingaba yiyunithi eyodwa yesisindo se-athomu (u) futhi anquma ukuthi i-element ingubani. Inani lama-proton kuyi-nucleus libizwa ngokuthi inombolo ye-athomu.
2. Ama-neutron: Ama-neutron ayizinhlayiya ezingathathi hlangothi ezitholakala ku-nucleus ye-athomu. Ama-neutron anesisindo esicishe sifane nama-proton futhi adlala indima ebalulekile ekuzinzeni kwenuzi. Inani lama-neutron lingahluka kuma-isotopes ahlukene ento efanayo.
3. Ama-electron: Ama-electron ayizinhlayiya ezishajelwe kabi ezijikeleza i-nucleus ye-athomu. Ama-electron anesisindo esincane kakhulu uma kuqhathaniswa nama-proton nama-neutron. Ukusatshalaliswa kwama-electron azungeze i-nucleus kunquma izakhiwo zamakhemikhali ze-athomu.
Imodeli Yemishini Ye-Quantum
Imodeli ye-quantum mechanical ye-athomu ithatha indawo yemodeli ye-athomu yakudala ngokuchaza ukuziphatha kwama-electron kuma-athomu kusetshenziswa izimiso ze-quantum. Kulo modeli, isikhundla kanye nomfutho we-electron akunakunqunywa ngokunembile ngasikhathi sinye (umgomo wokungaqiniseki kaHeisenberg). Ama-electron achazwa ngemisebenzi yamagagasi (ama-orbitals), anikeza amathuba okuthola i-electron ezindaweni ezahlukahlukene ezizungeze i-nucleus.
Ama-Orbitals kanye namazinga Amandla
Ama-electron kuma-athomu athatha ama-orbital anezimo namandla ahlukene. Lawa ma-orbital aqoqwe ngamagobolondo e-electron ngokusekelwe emazingeni awo amandla. Igobolondo le-electron libonakala ngenombolo yalo eyinhloko ye-quantum (n), futhi igobolondo ngalinye liqukethe amagobolondo angaphansi (s, p, d, f) anezinombolo ze-quantum ze-azimuthal ezahlukene (l).
1. Ama-orbital e-S: Akhiwe njengebhola futhi kukhona i-orbital eyodwa kuphela egobolondweni ngalinye. I-orbital ye-s ingabamba ama-electron amabili.
2. p Orbital: Ibunjwe njenge-dumbbell futhi kune-p orbitals ezintathu ku-p subshell ngayinye. I-p orbital ngayinye ingabamba ama-electron amabili, ngakho-ke i-p subshell ingabamba ama-electron ayisithupha.
3. d Orbital: Isimo sayo siyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu futhi kunezinhlobo ezinhlanu zama-d orbital ku-subshell ngayinye ye-d. I-d orbital ngayinye ingabamba ama-electron amabili, ngakho-ke i-subshell ye-d ingabamba ama-electron ayishumi.
4. f Orbitals: Isimo siyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu futhi kunezi-orbitals eziyisikhombisa ze-f ku-subshell ngayinye ye-f. I-orbital ngayinye ye-f ingabamba ama-electron amabili, ngakho-ke i-subshell ye-f ingabamba ama-electron afinyelela kwayishumi nane.
Ukucushwa kwe-Electron
Ukucushwa kwe-electron kuchaza ukusatshalaliswa kwama-electron kuma-orbital e-athomu. Isimiso se-Aufbau, isimiso sokukhipha uPauli, kanye nomthetho kaHund yimithetho eyinhloko enquma ukucushwa kwama-electron kuma-athomu.
1. Isimiso se-Aufbau: Ama-electron agcwalisa ama-orbital ngamandla aphansi kakhulu kuqala ngaphambi kokugcwalisa ama-orbital ngamandla aphezulu.
2. Isimiso Sokuhlukaniswa Kwe-Pauli: I-orbital ngayinye ingamukela ama-electron amabili angenani eliphelele aneziphendu eziphambene.
3. Umthetho kaHund: Ama-electron azohlala kuma-orbital angenalutho ku-subshell efanayo ngaphambi kokuhlangana ku-orbital efanayo ukuze kuncishiswe ukuxoshwa kwama-electron.
Isibonelo sokucushwa kwe-electron se-athomu ye-oxygen (O), enenombolo ye-athomu engu-8:
\[ 1s^2 2s^2 2p^4 \]
Lokhu kukhombisa ukuthi ama-electron amabili agcwalisa i-orbital ye-1s, ama-electron amabili agcwalisa i-orbital ye-2s, kanye nama-electron amane agcwalisa i-orbital ye-2p.
Ukusetshenziswa Kokuqonda Isakhiwo Se-Atomic
Ukuqonda isakhiwo se-athomu kunezindlela eziningi ezisebenzayo emikhakheni eyahlukahlukene, okuhlanganisa ikhemistri, ifiziksi, imithi kanye nobuchwepheshe.
Kimia
Ukuqonda isakhiwo se-athomu kanye nokucushwa kwama-electron kubalulekile ekuchazeni izakhiwo zamakhemikhali zezinto kanye nama-compound. Ukusebenzisana phakathi kwama-electron e-valence (ama-electron egobolondweni elingaphandle) lama-athomu ahlukene kunquma uhlobo lwesibopho samakhemikhali esakhiwe (i-covalent, i-ionic, noma i-metallic) kanye nezakhiwo zamakhemikhali ze-compound.
Ifiziksi
Ku-physics, isakhiwo se-athomu siyisisekelo sokuqonda izinto ezifana ne-athomu spectra, umphumela we-Zeeman, kanye ne-magnetism. Ithiyori ye-Quantum, echaza isakhiwo se-athomu, iphinde isekele ukuthuthukiswa kobuchwepheshe obufana nama-laser nama-semiconductor.
Ezokwelapha
Ukuqonda isakhiwo se-athomu kanye nokusebenzisana phakathi kwama-athomu kubalulekile kwezokwelapha, ikakhulukazi ekuthuthukisweni kwemithi kanye nokwelashwa. Isibonelo, amasu okuthwebula izithombe zezokwelapha njenge-MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) asekelwe esimisweni sokubonakala kwamagnetic kwe-nuclei ye-athomu.
ubuchwepheshe
I-nanotechnology, ehilela ukuphathwa kwama-athomu nama-molecule, ivumela ukuthuthukiswa kwezinto ezintsha ezinezakhiwo ezithuthukisiwe, njengamandla, ukuguquguquka, kanye nokuqhuba kukagesi. Ukuqonda isakhiwo se-athomu kusekela nobuchwepheshe bokugcina amandla njengamabhethri e-lithium-ion namaseli kaphethiloli.
Isiphetho
Isakhiwo se-athomu siyisisekelo sokuqonda kwethu umhlaba wezinto ezibonakalayo. Kusukela emqondweni wokuqala kaDemocritus we-athomu kuya kumodeli yesimanje ye-quantum, ukuqonda kwethu i-athomu kuthuthuke kakhulu. Ama-athomu aqukethe ama-proton, ama-neutron, nama-electron, ahlelwe kuyi-nucleus kanye nama-orbital azungeze i-nucleus. Ngokuqonda okujulile kwesakhiwo se-athomu, singachaza izakhiwo zamakhemikhali nezomzimba zezinto, futhi sithuthukise ubuchwepheshe obusha obuguqula izimpilo zethu. Lokhu kuqonda kuyaqhubeka nokukhula njengoba isayensi nobuchwepheshe buthuthuka, buvula indlela yokuthola izinto ezazingakaze zicatshangelwe ngaphambili.
