Isakhiwo se-Atomic kanye neThebula Lezinto Ezivamile
I-Pendahuluan
Ezweni le-chemistry, ukuqonda isakhiwo se-athomu kanye nethebula lezinto eziphindaphindwayo kubalulekile. Ukuqonda kahle lezi zici ezimbili kuvumela ososayensi ukuthi bachaze izakhiwo ezahlukene kanye nokuziphatha kwezinto. Njengoba nje ukuqonda okuhlangenwe nakho, izizathu, kanye namaphethini empilweni yansuku zonke kusenza sikwazi ukubikezela ukusabela kwamakhemikhali, izakhiwo zomzimba, kanye nokuziphatha kwezinto endaweni yonke, ukuqonda isakhiwo se-athomu kanye nethebula lezinto eziphindaphindwayo kusisiza ukuthi sibikezele ukusabela kwamakhemikhali, izakhiwo zomzimba, kanye nokuziphatha kwezinto endaweni yonke.
Isakhiwo se-Athomu
Ama-athomu ayizinyunithi eziyisisekelo zento ezakha konke okusizungezile. Ama-athomu akhiwa izinhlayiya ezintathu eziyinhloko ze-subatomic: ama-proton, ama-neutron, nama-electron. Ama-proton nama-neutron akha i-nucleus, kuyilapho ama-electron ejikeleza i-nucleus ezindaweni ezithile efwini lama-electron.
Iproton
Ama-proton ayizinhlayiya ezishajelwe kahle ezitholakala kuyi-nucleus ye-athomu. Inani lama-proton kuyi-nucleus linquma ukuthi i-element iyini, eyaziwa ngokuthi inombolo yayo ye-athomu. Isibonelo, i-athomu yekhabhoni inama-proton ayisithupha, kanti i-oxygen inayisishiyagalombili. Ama-proton nawo anesisindo esiseduze neyunithi eyodwa yesisindo se-athomu (u).
I-neutron
Ama-neutron ayizinhlayiya ezingashajwanga ezitholakala ku-nucleus ye-athomu. Anesisindo esicishe sifane nama-proton. Nakuba engaphazamisi ukushaja kwe-athomu, inani lama-neutron ku-nucleus lingathinta ukuqina kwe-athomu futhi linqume ama-isotope ayo. Ama-Isotopes ayizinhlobo zento enenani elifanayo lama-proton kodwa enenani elihlukile lama-neutron.
Electron
Ama-electron ayizinhlayiya ezishajelwe kabi ezijikeleza i-nucleus ye-athomu ezindleleni ezithile noma amazinga wamandla. Ama-electron anesisindo esincane kakhulu uma kuqhathaniswa nama-proton nama-neutron. Ukusatshalaliswa kwama-electron ngaphakathi kwe-athomu, noma ukucushwa kwama-electron, kunquma izakhiwo zamakhemikhali zaleso sakhi. Ama-electron angaphandle (ama-valence electron) adlala indima ebalulekile ekwakhekeni kwezibopho zamakhemikhali.
Imodeli ye-Atomic
Kusukela ezikhathini zasendulo, ososayensi baye bakha amamodeli ahlukahlukene ukuchaza isakhiwo sama-athomu. Kusukela kumodeli elula ye-athomu kaDalton kuya kumbono we-athomu kaThomson, owacabanga ngama-electron "njengama-raisin buns," kuya kumodeli kaRutherford, owasungula umqondo we-nucleus ye-athomu. Imodeli ye-athomu yesimanje eyamukelwa kabanzi namuhla yimodeli ye-quantum mechanical, eyethulwa ngu-Erwin Schrödinger noWerner Heisenberg.
Imodeli Yemishini Ye-Quantum
Imodeli ye-quantum mechanical iwukuhluzwa kwemodeli ye-Bohr ye-athomu. Kulo modeli, ama-electron awahambi ezindleleni ezithile, kodwa ezindleleni ezijikelezayo, okuyimisebenzi yezibalo echaza amathuba okuthola i-electron esikhaleni esinezinhlangothi ezintathu. Lawa ma-orbital anezimo namandla ahlukene, aziwa ngokuthi ama-subshells (s, p, d, f).
Ithebula Lezinto Ezinezikhathi Ezivamile
Ithebula lezinto ezihlala isikhathi eside, noma uhlelo lwezinto ezihlala isikhathi eside, luhlelo lwezinto ezisekelwe enombolweni yazo ye-athomu, ukwakheka kwama-electron, kanye nezakhiwo zamakhemikhali. Ithebula lezinto ezihlala isikhathi eside esilaziyo namuhla liwumphumela wokuthuthukiswa kwabacwaningi abahlukahlukene, ikakhulukazi uDmitri Mendeleev noHenry Moseley.
Umlando weThebula Lezikhathi Ezivamile
UDmitri Mendeleev wayengusokhemisi waseRussia owaqala ukuhlanganisa ithebula lezinto eziphindaphindwayo ngo-1869 ngokusekelwe esisindweni se-athomu (isisindo se-athomu) kanye nezakhiwo zamakhemikhali. UMendeleev wabikezela ukuthi kukhona izinto ezingakatholakali kanye nezindawo zazo etafuleni, okwathi kamuva kwafakazelwa ukuthi kuyiqiniso. Kamuva uHenry Moseley walungisa ithebula likaMendeleev ngokuhlela izinto ngokunembe kakhudlwana ngenombolo ye-athomu (inani lama-proton).
Isakhiwo Sethebula Lezikhathi Ezivamile
Ithebula le-periodic lihlukaniswe ngama-period namaqembu.
isikhathi
I-period iwumugqa ovundlile kuthebula le-periodic. Izinto ezisenkathini zinenani elifanayo lamagobolondo e-electron, kusukela ku-1 (i-hydrogen ne-helium) kuya ku-7 (izinto ze-transuranium).
Iqembu
Iqembu liyikholomu eqondile kuthebula le-periodic. Izinto ezingaphakathi kweqembu zinokumiswa okufanayo kwe-valence electron, okubangela ukuthi zibe nezakhiwo zamakhemikhali ezifanayo. Amaqembu ahlukaniswe ngezigaba ezimbili ezinkulu: iqembu eliyinhloko (iqembu A) kanye neqembu lokuguquka (iqembu B).
Ikilasi Eliyinhloko
Amaqembu amakhulu ahlanganisa amaqembu 1 (IA) kuya ku-18 (VIIIA), ahlanganisa izinto ezifana nezinsimbi ze-alkali, izinsimbi zomhlaba ze-alkaline, ama-halogens, namagesi ahloniphekile. Izakhiwo zamakhemikhali zento ngayinye kula maqembu zinqunywa yinani lama-electron e-valence.
– Iqembu 1: I-Alkali: Ihlanganisa i-hydrogen, i-lithium, i-sodium, i-potassium, njll. Ziyizinsimbi ezisabela kakhulu ezine-valence electron eyodwa.
– Iqembu 2: Izinsimbi Zomhlaba Ezine-Alkaline: Zihlanganisa i-beryllium, i-magnesium, i-calcium, njll. Ziphinde zisebenze kakhulu futhi zinama-electron amabili e-valence.
– Iqembu 17: Ama-halogens: Ahlanganisa i-fluorine, i-chlorine, i-bromine, njll. Angama-non-metal asabela kakhulu anama-electron ayisikhombisa e-valence.
– Iqembu 18: Amagesi Ahloniphekile: Ahlanganisa i-helium, i-neon, i-argon, njll. Awasebenzi futhi awavamile ukusabela ngoba anama-electron ayisishiyagalombili agcwele i-valence.
Iqembu Lesikhashana
Iqembu lokuguquka lihlanganisa izakhi ezivela emaqenjini 3 kuya ku-12, ngokuvamile eziyizinsimbi ezinezakhiwo ezibonakalayo ezihlukile njengobulukhuni, ugesi kanye nokushisa, kanye namaphuzu aphezulu okuncibilika. Lezi zakhi zinama-electron e-valence kuma-subshells ka-d no-f.
Izakhiwo Zezinto Ezivamile
Izakhiwo ze-periodical zezinto ziyizitayela noma amaphethini ekuziphatheni kwezinto kuthebula le-periodical. Ezinye zezakhiwo ezibalulekile ze-periodical zifaka:
Irediyasi ye-Atomic
Irediyasi ye-athomu ibanga elisuka ku-nucleus liye ku-electron engaphandle. Irediyasi ye-athomu ivame ukwehla kusukela kwesobunxele kuya kwesokudla phakathi nesikhathi ngoba ukushaja kwe-nuclear okwandayo kudonsela ama-electron eduze. Kodwa-ke, irediyasi ye-athomu iyanda kusukela phezulu kuya phansi eqenjini ngenxa yokwengezwa kwamagobolondo e-electron.
Amandla e-Ionization
Amandla e-ionization amandla adingekayo ukususa i-electron ku-athomu esimweni segesi. Amandla e-ionization ayanda kusukela kwesobunxele kuya kwesokudla phakathi nesikhathi ngoba ishaja enamandla yenuzi idonsela ama-electron kakhulu. Ngokuphambene nalokho, amandla e-ionization ancipha kusukela phezulu kuya phansi eqenjini ngoba ama-electron aseziqongweni zangaphandle aqhelelene ne-nucleus futhi awaboshiwe kakhulu.
Ukungasebenzi kahle kwe-electron
I-Electronegativity yikhono le-athomu lokuheha ama-electron esibophweni samakhemikhali. I-Electronegativity iyanda kusukela kwesobunxele kuya kwesokudla phakathi nesikhathi futhi iyancipha kusukela phezulu kuya phansi eqenjini.
Ukuhlangana kwe-Electron
I-electron affinity wushintsho lwamandla olwenzeka lapho i-athomu ithola i-electron. I-electron affinity ivame ukuba negative kakhulu kusukela kwesobunxele kuya kwesokudla phakathi nesikhathi futhi ibe negative encane kusukela phezulu kuya phansi eqenjini.
Isiphetho
Ukuqonda okuphelele kwesakhiwo se-athomu kanye nethebula lezinto eziphindaphindwayo kubalulekile kumakhemikhali. Isakhiwo se-athomu sinikeza ukuqonda ukuhlelwa okuyisisekelo kanye nezakhiwo zezinhlayiya ezingaphansi kwe-athomu, kuyilapho ithebula lezinto eziphindaphindwayo linikeza uhlaka lokuhlukanisa nokubikezela izakhiwo zezinto. Ngokuqonda zombili lezi zici, asigcini nje ngokuthola ukuqonda okujulile ngezinto kodwa futhi nekhono lokusebenzisa lolo lwazi ocwaningweni, embonini, kanye nasebuchwephesheni.
