Maatomu ndiwo mayuniti ekutanga echinhu chinoumba zvese zviri muchadenga. Kunzwisisa marongerwo eatomu kwakakosha pakunzwisisa zviitiko zvakasiyana-siyana zvemuviri nemakemikari zviri pasi pehupenyu hwemazuva ano netekinoroji. Chinyorwa chino chichakurukura marongerwo eatomu, nhoroondo yekuwanikwa kwayo, zvikamu zvayo zvikuru, uye kuti kunzwisisa kwedu maatomu kwakachinja sei nekufamba kwenguva.
Nhoroondo yeKuwanikwa kweAtomu
Pfungwa Yekutanga yeAtomu
Pfungwa yeatomu yakatanga kuunzwa nemuzivi wekare wechiGiriki Democritus muzana remakore rechishanu BC. Akakurudzira kuti zvinhu zvose zvinoumbwa netunhu tudiki, tusingaparadzanise, tunonzi "atomos," zvichireva kuti "tusingacheki" muchiGiriki. Zvisinei, pfungwa iyi haina kuwana simba guru pakati pemasayendisiti panguva iyoyo uye yaive yekufungidzira.
Dzidziso yeAtomu yaDalton
Mukutanga kwezana remakore rechi19, John Dalton, nyanzvi yesainzi yeChirungu, akamutsiridza pfungwa yemaatomu kuburikidza nedzidziso yake yemaatomu. Dalton akataura kuti chinhu chimwe nechimwe chinoumbwa nemaatomu akafanana uye kuti maatomu ezvinhu zvakasiyana ane huremu hwakasiyana uye hunhu hwakasiyana. Dzidziso iyi yakavakirwa pamutemo wehuwandu hwakasiyana uye mutemo wehuwandu hwakawanda, unotsanangura kuti maatomu anobatana sei kuti aumbe makemikari.
Kuwanikwa kweMaerekitironi
Mukupera kwezana remakore rechi19, J.J. Thomson akawana maerekitironi kuburikidza nekuyedza kwake nemachubhu e cathode ray. Thomson akaratidza kuti maerekitironi zvidimbu zvidiki pane maatomu zvine charge isina kunaka. Kuwanikwa uku ndiko kwakakonzera modhi yeatomu inonzi "plum pudding", umo maatomu aionekwa semabhora ane charge ine positively ane maerekitironi akapararira mukati mawo semazambiringa akaomarara mupudding.
Muenzaniso weAtomu waRutherford
Muna 1911, Ernest Rutherford, kuburikidza nekuyedza kupararira kwezvimedu zve alpha, akawana kuti maatomu ane nucleus diki, yakakora, ine chaji yakanaka pakati pawo, yakazonzi atomic nucleus. Huwandu hwakawanda hweatomu hwakaungana munucleus, nepo maerekitironi akakomberedza nucleus munzvimbo yakakura.
Muenzaniso weAtomu waBohr
Muna 1913, Niels Bohr akagadzira modhi yakadzama yeatomu yakavakirwa padzidziso yequantum. Bohr akataura kuti maerekitironi anofamba mumitsetse chaiyo inonzi maerekitironi, uye kuti maerekitironi anogona kungovapo pamatanho chaiwo esimba. Modhi iyi yakatsanangura hydrogen line spectrum uye yakaunza pfungwa yemazinga akasiyana esimba.
Maumbirwo eAtomu Emazuva Ano
Kunzwisisa kwemazuva ano kwemaumbirwo eatomu kwakavakirwa pa quantum mechanics, iyo inopa mufananidzo wakadzama wemaitiro ezvikamu zveatomu zvakaita semaerekitironi, mapurotoni, uye manyuturoni.
Zvikamu Zvikuru zveAtomu
1. Mapurotoni: Mapurotoni zvimedu zvine chaji yakanaka zvinowanikwa munucleus yeatomu. Mapurotoni ane huremu hweatomu imwe chete (u) uye anosarudza hunhu hwechinhu. Huwandu hwemapurotoni ari munucleus hunonzi nhamba yeatomu.
2. Manyuturoni: Manyuturoni zvimedu zvisina kusimba zvinowanikwawo munucleus yeatomu. Manyuturoni ane huremu hwakafanana nemapurotoni uye anoita basa rakakosha mukugadzikana kwenyukireya. Huwandu hwemanyuturoni hunogona kusiyana mumaisotopi akasiyana echinhu chimwe chete.
3. Maerekitironi: Maerekitironi zvimedu zvine chaji isina kunaka zvinotenderera nucleus yeatomu. Maerekitironi ane huremu hudiki zvikuru zvichienzaniswa nemapurotoni nemanyuturoni. Kupararira kwemaerekitironi akatenderedza nucleus kunosarudza hunhu hwemakemikari eatomu.
Muenzaniso weMakanika eQuantum
Muenzaniso we quantum mechanical weatomu unotsiva muenzaniso we classical atomic nekutsanangura maitiro ema electron mumaatomu uchishandisa misimboti ye quantum. Mumuenzaniso uyu, nzvimbo uye momentum ye electron hazvigone kutsanangurwa zvakanyatsonaka panguva imwe chete (Heisenberg's unsure principle). Ma electron anotsanangurwa nema wave functions (orbitals), izvo zvinopa mukana wekuwana electron panzvimbo dzakasiyana-siyana dzakatenderedza nucleus.
Mafambiro Emhepo uye Madanho Esimba
Maerekitironi ari mumaatomu anogara muma orbital ane maumbirwo akasiyana uye simba. Ma orbital aya akaunganidzwa muma electron shells zvichienderana nemazinga awo esimba. Electron shell inoonekwa ne principal quantum number (n), uye shell yega yega ine subshells (s, p, d, f) dzine azimuthal quantum numbers dzakasiyana (l).
1. MaS orbitals: Akaumbwa sebhora uye pane s orbital imwe chete mugoko rega rega. S orbital inogona kutakura maerekitironi maviri.
2. p Orbital: Yakaumbwa se dumbbell uye kune ma p orbitals matatu mu p subshell yega yega. P orbital yega yega inogona kubata maerekitironi maviri, saka p subshell inogona kubata maerekitironi matanhatu.
3. d Orbital: Chimiro chayo chakaoma kunzwisisa uye kune d orbitals shanu mu d subshell yega yega. D orbital yega yega inogona kubata maerekitironi maviri, saka d subshell inogona kubata maerekitironi gumi.
4. f Orbitals: Chimiro chacho chakaoma uye pane ma orbitals manomwe e f muchikamu chimwe nechimwe che f. Orbital imwe neimwe ye f inogona kubata maerekitironi maviri, saka chikamu che f chinogona kubata maerekitironi gumi nemana.
Kugadzika kweElectron
Kugadzika kwemaerekitironi kunotsanangura kugoverwa kwemaerekitironi mumaatomu emagetsi. Mutemo weAufbau, mutemo wePauli exclusion, uye mutemo waHund ndiwo mitemo mikuru inosarudza kugadzika kwemaerekitironi mumaatomu.
1. Nheyo yeAufbau: Maerekitironi anozadza maorbital nesimba shoma kutanga asati azadza maorbital nesimba rakawanda.
2. Nheyo yeKubvisa Pauli: Orbital yega yega inogona kugamuchira maerekitironi maviri ane ma spins akasiyana.
3. Mutemo waHund: Maerekitironi anogara muma "orbital" asina chinhu mu "subshell" imwechete asati abatana mu "orbital" imwechete kuti aderedze kudzorwa kwemaerekitironi.
Muenzaniso wekugadzirwa kwemaerekitironi ndeweatomu yeokisijeni (O), ine nhamba yeatomu 8:
\[ 1s^2 2s^2 2p^4 \]
Izvi zvinoratidza kuti maerekitironi maviri anozadza orbital ye1s, maerekitironi maviri anozadza orbital ye2s, uye maerekitironi mana anozadza orbital ye2p.
Kushandiswa kweKunzwisisa Maumbirwo eAtomu
Kunzwisisa maumbirwo eatomu kune mashandisirwo akawanda anoshanda muzvikamu zvakasiyana-siyana, zvinosanganisira chemistry, physics, medicine, uye tekinoroji.
Kimia
Kunzwisisa chimiro chemaatomu uye magadzirirwo emaerekitironi kwakakosha pakutsanangura hunhu hwemakemikari ezvinhu nemakomponi. Kudyidzana pakati pemaerekitironi evalence (maerekitironi ari mugoko rekunze) emaatomu akasiyana kunosarudza rudzi rwechisungo chemakemikari chakaumbwa (covalent, ionic, kana metallic) uye hunhu hwemakemikari ekomponi.
Fizikisi
Mufizikisi, chimiro chemaatomu chakakosha pakunzwisisa zvinhu zvakaita semaatomu spectra, Zeeman effect, uye magnetism. Dzidziso yeQuantum, iyo inotsanangura chimiro chemaatomu, ndiyo zvakare iri musimboti wekuvandudzwa kwetekinoroji dzakadai sema lasers nema semiconductors.
Medical
Kunzwisisa magadzirirwo eatomu uye kudyidzana kuripo pakati peatomu kwakakosha mukurapa, kunyanya mukugadzirwa kwemishonga nekurapa. Semuenzaniso, matekiniki ekurapa ekufungidzira akadai seMRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) akavakirwa pamusimboti wemagnetic resonance yemaatomu.
Michina
Nanotechnology, iyo inosanganisira kushandiswa kwemaatomu nemamorekuru, inobvumira kugadzirwa kwezvinhu zvitsva zvine hunhu hwakawedzerwa, zvakaita sesimba, kuchinjika, uye kufambisa magetsi. Kunzwisisa maumbirwo eatomu kunotsigirawo matekinoroji ekuchengetedza simba akadai semabhatiri e lithium-ion uye masero emafuta.
Mhedziso
Maumbirwo eatomu ndiwo musimboti wekunzwisisa kwedu nyika yezvinhu. Kubva papfungwa yekutanga yaDemocritus yeatomu kusvika kumuenzaniso wemazuva ano wequantum, kunzwisisa kwedu atomu kwakachinja zvikuru. Maatomu ane mapurotoni, manyuturoni, nemaerekitironi, akarongwa munucleus uye orbitals akakomberedza nucleus. Nekunzwisisa kwakadzama kwemaumbirwo eatomu, tinogona kutsanangura hunhu hwemakemikari nemuviri hwezvinhu, uye kugadzira matekinoroji matsva anoshandura hupenyu hwedu. Kunzwisisa uku kunoramba kuchikura sezvo sainzi netekinoroji zvichifambira mberi, zvichigadzira nzira yekuwana zvinhu zvisingafungidzike.
