Maumbirwo eatomu: Hwaro hwezvinhu zvose
Maatomu ndiwo mayuniti ekutanga echinhu chinoumba zvese zviri muchadenga. Kunzwisisa marongerwo eatomu kwakakosha mukemistri, fizikisi, nedzimwe nzvimbo dzesainzi, sezvo maatomu ari hwaro hwekuti zvinhu zvinobatana sei uye zvinoumba sei zvinhu zvakasiyana-siyana. Chinyorwa chino chichakurukura zvakadzama nezvemarongerwo eatomu, kushanduka kwepfungwa yeatomu munhoroondo yesenzi, uye zvikamu zvikuru zvinoumba atomu.
Nhoroondo yeAtomic Concept
Pfungwa yemaatomu yakatanga muGreece Yekare nemuzivi Democritus (460–370 BC), uyo akatanga pfungwa yekuti zvinhu zvaive netunhu tudiki, tusingaonekwe tunonzi atomos, zvichireva kuti "tisingaganhurike." Zvisinei, pfungwa iyi haina kutsigirwa nehumbowo hwekuyedza uye yaive yekufungidzira kwefilosofi.
Pfungwa yemaatomu yakatanga kufungwa nezvayo nesainzi muzana remakore rechi19 apo John Dalton, musayendisiti wekuEngland, akataura nezvedzidziso yemaatomu eDaltonian. Dzidziso iyi yakataura kuti zvinhu zvese zvinoumbwa nemaatomu asingaparadzanise, kuti chinhu chimwe nechimwe chine mhando imwe chete yeatomu, uye kuti maatomu ezvinhu zvakasiyana anogona kusanganiswa kuti aumbe makemikari. Iri raive danho rakakosha rakaisa pfungwa yemaatomu munzvimbo yesainzi.
Kuwanikwa kweElectrons uye Thomson's Atomic Model
Mukupera kwezana remakore rechi19, musayendisiti wekuBritain J.J. Thomson akawana subatomic particle yava kuzivikanwa seelectron kuburikidza ne cathode ray tube experiments. Thomson akagadzira modhi ye plum pudding, ichiratidza maatomu semabhora ane positive charged ane maerekitironi akapararira kwese kwese, semazambiringa akasvibira muchingwa.
Muenzaniso weAtomu waRutherford
Muna 1911, Ernest Rutherford, kuburikidza nekuyedza kuparadzira zvidimbu zvealpha papepa regoridhe, akaratidza zvakabudirira kuti maatomu ane musimboti mudiki kwazvo, wakakora, une chaji yakanaka pakati, uyo wakazozivikanwa senucleus. Maerekitironi akakomberedza musimboti uyu nenzvimbo isina chinhu pakati pawo, kusiyana nemuenzaniso waThomson, uyo waifanotaura kupararira kwemaerekitironi akapararira mubhora rakanaka.
Muenzaniso weAtomu waBohr
Muna 1913, Niels Bohr akaunza modhi yemaatomu yepamusoro inozivikanwa semodhi yeBohr. Bohr akakurudzira kuti maerekitironi afambe mumitsetse chaiyo, kana kuti "magoko," akatenderedza nucleus ane simba rakati. Maerekitironi anogona kungofamba kubva pane imwe nzira kuenda kune imwe nekutora kana kuburitsa simba muchimiro chemaphoton. Modhi yeBohr yaive nepesvedzero huru mukuvandudzwa kwedzidziso yequantum, kunyangwe pakupedzisira yakawanikwa isiriyo chaiyo yezvinhu zvese.
Muenzaniso weMakanika eQuantum
Nekuvandudzwa kwequantum mechanics, maatomu emhando dzakava dzakaoma uye dzakarurama. Chimwe chinhu chakakosha chakaitwa naErwin Schrödinger, uyo akatanga Schrödinger equation, iyo inotsanangura maerekitironi semabasa emafungu anoratidza mukana wekuva panzvimbo chaiyo yakatenderedza nucleus, kwete mudenderedzwa rakagadzika. Iyi modhi, inowanzonzi modhi yegore remaerekitironi, inotsanangura nzvimbo dzinowanikwa maerekitironi, dzinonzi orbitals.
Zvikamu Zvikuru zveAtomu
Maatomu ane mhando nhatu huru dzezvikamu zve subatomic: mapurotoni, ma neutron, uye maerekitironi.
1. Mapurotoni:
– Mapurotoni ane chaji yakanaka uye ari munucleus yeatomu. Huwandu hwemapurotoni ari munucleus hunosarudza rudzi rwechinhu chiri kutaurwa nezvacho. Semuenzaniso, atomu ine protoni imwe ihydrogen, nepo atomu ine mapurotoni matanhatu icarbon. Huwandu hwemapurotoni hunonzi nhamba yeatomu.
2. Manyutroni:
– MaNeutron haana chaji (neutral) uye anowanikwa munucleus yeatomu. Huwandu hwemaNeutrons ari munucleus hunogona kusiyana pakati pemaisotopes akasiyana echinhu chimwe chete. Semuenzaniso, kabhoni-12 ine maNeutrons matanhatu, nepo kabhoni-14 ine maNeutrons masere. MaNeutrons anobatsira muhuwandu hweatomu asi haakanganisi hunhu hwemakemikari hwechinhu chacho.
3. Maerekitironi:
– Maerekitironi ane chaji isina kunaka uye anofamba-famba munucleus muorbital pamatanho akasiyana esimba. Huwandu hwemaerekitironi muatomu isina neutral hwakaenzana nehuwandu hwemapurotoni. Maerekitironi ndiwo anokonzera hunhu hwemakemikari emaatomu, sezvo anobatanidzwa mukuumbwa kwezvisungo zvemakemikari uye maitiro.
Maumbirwo eatomu uye kubatana kwemakemikari
Maerekitironi ari mumaatomu anoiswa mumagoko esimba akasiyana zvichienderana nepfungwa yeAufbau, mutemo waHund, uye pfungwa yePauli exclusion. Maerekitironi ari mugoko rekunze (anonzi maerekitironi evalence) anokanganisa zvakanyanya hunhu hwemakemikari uye reactivity yemaatomu. Maerekitironi aya evalence anogona kutamiswa kana kugoverwa nemamwe maatomu kuti aumbe mabhondi emakemikari, akadai semabhondi ecovalent, mabhondi eionic, uye mabhondi esimbi.
1. Zvisungo zveCovalent:
– Zvinoitika kana maatomu maviri akagovana peya imwe kana kupfuura yemaerekitironi evalence. Izvi zvinowanzoitika mumamorekuru eorganic akadai semvura (H2O) uye methane (CH4).
2. Zvisungo zveIonic:
– Zvinoitika kana atomu imwe chete ikapa rimwe kana akawanda emaerekitironi ayo evalence kune rimwe atomu, zvichikonzera maion ane chaji yakanaka (cations) uye maion ane chaji yakaipa (anions) zvinokwezvana. Muenzaniso wekare imunyu wetafura (NaCl), une sodium (Na+) uye chloride (Cl-) ions.
3. Zvisungo zveSimbi:
– Zvinoitika kana maerekitironi evalence achiyangarara zvakasununguka pakati pemaion esimbi ane chaji yakanaka, zvichiita kuti "abate" zvakasimba uye zvichipa simbi hunhu hwakasiyana hwakadai sekufambisa magetsi uye kugona kuchinjika.
Isotopes uye Atomic Mass
Isotopes imhando dzakasiyana dzechinhu chimwe chete chine nhamba dzakasiyana dzemanyuturoni munyuturo dzadzo. Semuenzaniso, isotopes dzinonyanya kuzivikanwa dzekabhoni icarbon-12 (mapurotoni matanhatu nemanyuturoni matanhatu) uye kabhoni-14 (mapurotoni matanhatu nemanyuturoni masere). Huremu hweatomu hwechinhu iavhareji yehuremu hwemaisotopes acho ese, anoyerwa muatomu huremu hwemayuturoni (amu).
Mhedziso
Kunzwisisa marongerwo eatomu ndicho chinhu chikuru pakunzwisisa zvinhu uye kudyidzana kwazvo muchadenga. Kubva papfungwa yekutanga yaDemocritus yeatomu kusvika kumamodheru emazuva ano equantum mechanical, kukura kwedzidziso yemaatomu kwakachinja maonero atinoita nyika. Maatomu, ane zvikamu zvawo mapurotoni, manyuturoni, nemaerekitironi, anoumba zvinhu zvose uye anoita basa rakakosha mukuita kwemakemikari uye hunhu hwezvinhu. Nekunyatsoongorora zvakadzama, masayendisiti anoramba achiwana zvakawanda nezvehunhu hwechadenga, achivhura mikana mitsva mutekinoroji nesainzi.
