Kapangidwe ka Atomu ndi Mndandanda wa Zinthu Zozungulira
Pendauluan
Mu dziko la chemistry, kumvetsetsa kapangidwe ka atomu ndi tebulo la zinthu zomwe zili ndi zinthu n'kofunika kwambiri. Kumvetsetsa bwino mbali ziwirizi kumathandiza asayansi kufotokoza makhalidwe ndi machitidwe osiyanasiyana a zinthu. Monga momwe kumvetsetsa zomwe zikuchitika, zifukwa, ndi machitidwe a moyo watsiku ndi tsiku kumatithandiza kulosera momwe zinthu zimayendera, makhalidwe enieni, ndi momwe zinthu zimayendera m'chilengedwe chonse, kumvetsetsa kapangidwe ka atomu ndi tebulo la zinthu zomwe zili ndi zinthu kumatithandiza kulosera momwe zinthu zimayendera, makhalidwe enieni, ndi momwe zinthu zilili m'chilengedwe chonse.
Kapangidwe ka Atomu
Maatomu ndi mayunitsi oyambira a chinthu chomwe chimapanga chilichonse chozungulira ife. Maatomu amapangidwa ndi tinthu tating'ono ...: mapulotoni, manyutroni, ndi maelekitironi. Mapulotoni ndi manyutroni amapanga nucleus, pomwe maelekitironi amazungulira nucleus m'magawo enaake mumtambo wa maelekitironi.
Proton
Mapulotoni ndi tinthu tating'onoting'ono tomwe timapezeka mu nyukiliyasi ya atomu. Chiwerengero cha mapulotoni mu nyukiliyasi chimatsimikizira kudziwika kwa chinthucho, chomwe chimadziwika kuti nambala yake ya atomu. Mwachitsanzo, atomu ya kaboni ili ndi mapulotoni asanu ndi limodzi, pomwe mpweya uli ndi asanu ndi atatu. Mapulotoni alinso ndi kulemera kofanana ndi unit imodzi ya atomu (u).
Neutron
Ma neutron ndi tinthu tosapatsidwa mphamvu tomwe timapezeka mu nyukiliyasi ya atomu. Tili ndi kulemera kofanana ndi ma protoni. Ngakhale kuti sitikhudza mphamvu ya atomu, kuchuluka kwa ma neutron mu nyukiliyasi kumatha kukhudza kukhazikika kwa atomu ndikupeza ma isotope ake. Ma isotopes ndi mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya chinthu chomwe chili ndi ma protoni ofanana koma ma neutron osiyanasiyana.
Electron
Ma electron ndi tinthu tating'onoting'ono tomwe timayendetsa nyukiliyasi ya atomu m'ma orbits enaake kapena mphamvu. Ma electron ali ndi kulemera kochepa kwambiri poyerekeza ndi ma proton ndi ma neutroni. Kugawika kwa ma electron mkati mwa atomu, kapena kasinthidwe ka ma electron, kumatsimikiza momwe chinthucho chimagwirira ntchito. Ma electron akunja (ma electron a valence) amachita gawo lofunikira kwambiri pakupanga ma bond a mankhwala.
Chitsanzo cha Atomiki
Kuyambira nthawi zakale, asayansi apanga mitundu yosiyanasiyana yofotokozera kapangidwe ka maatomu. Kuyambira chitsanzo chosavuta cha atomu cha Dalton mpaka chiphunzitso cha atomu cha Thomson, chomwe chinkaganiza kuti ma elekitironi ndi "ma buns a mphesa," mpaka chitsanzo cha Rutherford, chomwe chinayambitsa lingaliro la nyukiliyasi ya atomu. Chitsanzo cha atomu chamakono chovomerezeka kwambiri masiku ano ndi chitsanzo cha quantum mechanical, chomwe chinayambitsidwa ndi Erwin Schrödinger ndi Werner Heisenberg.
Chitsanzo cha Makina a Quantum
Chitsanzo cha quantum mechanical ndi kukonzanso kwa chitsanzo cha Bohr cha atomu. Mu chitsanzo ichi, ma electron samayenda m'ma orbit enaake, koma m'ma orbit, omwe ndi ntchito zamasamu zomwe zimafotokoza mwayi wopeza electron mu malo atatu. Ma orbit awa ali ndi mawonekedwe ndi mphamvu zosiyanasiyana, zomwe zimadziwika kuti subshells (s, p, d, f).
Gome la Zinthu Zozungulira
Gome la periodic, kapena dongosolo la periodic, ndi dongosolo la zinthu zomwe zimakhazikitsidwa kutengera nambala yawo ya atomiki, kapangidwe ka ma elekitironi, ndi katundu wa mankhwala. Gome la periodic lomwe tikudziwa lerolino ndi zotsatira za kusintha kwa ofufuza osiyanasiyana, makamaka Dmitri Mendeleev ndi Henry Moseley.
Mbiri ya Periodic Table
Dmitri Mendeleev anali katswiri wa sayansi ya zamankhwala waku Russia yemwe adalemba tebulo la periodic mu 1869 kutengera kulemera kwa atomiki (atomic mass) ndi katundu wa mankhwala. Mendeleev adaneneratu kuti pali zinthu zomwe sizinapezeke komanso malo awo patebulo, zomwe pambuyo pake zidatsimikizika kuti ndi zoona. Pambuyo pake Henry Moseley adakonza tebulo la Mendeleev pokonza zinthuzo molondola kwambiri ndi nambala ya atomiki (chiwerengero cha ma protoni).
Kapangidwe ka Tebulo la Nthawi ndi Nthawi
Gome la periodic limagawidwa m'magulu ndi nthawi.
nthawi
Nyengo ndi mzere wopingasa mu tebulo la periodic. Zinthu zomwe zili mu nyengo zimakhala ndi chiwerengero chofanana cha zipolopolo za ma elekitironi, kuyambira 1 (hydrogen ndi helium) mpaka 7 (zinthu za transuranium).
Gulu
Gulu ndi mzere woyima mu tebulo la periodic. Zinthu zomwe zili mkati mwa gulu zimakhala ndi mawonekedwe ofanana a ma elekitironi a valence, zomwe zimapangitsa kuti zikhale ndi zinthu zofanana zamakemikolo. Magulu amagawidwa m'magawo awiri akuluakulu: gulu lalikulu (gulu A) ndi gulu losinthira (gulu B).
Kalasi Yaikulu
Magulu akuluakulu akuphatikizapo magulu 1 (IA) mpaka 18 (VIIIA), omwe akuphatikizapo zinthu monga zitsulo za alkali, zitsulo za alkaline earth, ma halogen, ndi mpweya wabwino. Katundu wa mankhwala a chinthu chilichonse m'magulu awa amatsimikiziridwa ndi kuchuluka kwa ma elekitironi a valence.
– Gulu 1: Alkali: Lili ndi haidrojeni, lithiamu, sodium, potaziyamu, ndi zina zotero. Ndi zitsulo zomwe zimakhala ndi valence electron imodzi.
– Gulu 2: Zitsulo za Alkaline Earth: Zili ndi beryllium, magnesium, calcium, ndi zina zotero. Zimakhalanso ndi mphamvu zambiri zogwira ntchito ndipo zili ndi ma electron awiri a valence.
– Gulu 17: Ma Halojeni: Amakhala ndi fluorine, chlorine, bromine, ndi zina zotero. Ndi zitsulo zopanda mphamvu zomwe zimakhala ndi ma elekitironi asanu ndi awiri a valence.
– Gulu 18: Mpweya Wabwino: Uli ndi helium, neon, argon, ndi zina zotero. Ndi wosagwira ntchito ndipo nthawi zambiri samachitapo kanthu chifukwa ali ndi ma electron asanu ndi atatu a valence.
Gulu Losintha
Gulu losinthira limaphatikizapo zinthu kuchokera m'magulu 3 mpaka 12, zomwe nthawi zambiri zimakhala zitsulo zomwe zimakhala ndi zinthu zakuthupi monga kuuma, mphamvu zamagetsi ndi kutentha, komanso malo osungunuka kwambiri. Zinthuzi zimakhala ndi ma electron a valence m'magulu ang'onoang'ono a d ndi f.
Katundu wa Zinthu Nthawi ndi Nthawi
Makhalidwe a zinthu nthawi ndi nthawi ndi njira zomwe zinthuzo zimayendera patebulo la nthawi ndi nthawi. Makhalidwe ena ofunikira a zinthu nthawi ndi nthawi ndi awa:
Atomiki Radius
Utali wa atomu ndi mtunda wochokera ku nyukiliyasi kupita ku elekitironi yakunja. Utali wa atomu umachepa kuchokera kumanzere kupita kumanja kudutsa nthawi chifukwa mphamvu ya nyukiliya yomwe ikukwera imakoka ma elekitironi pafupi. Komabe, utali wa atomu umawonjezeka kuchokera pamwamba kupita pansi kudutsa gulu chifukwa cha kuwonjezera ma elekitironi.
Mphamvu ya Ionization
Mphamvu ya ionization ndi mphamvu yofunikira kuti ichotse elekitironi kuchokera ku atomu yomwe ili mu mkhalidwe wa gasi. Mphamvu ya ionization imawonjezeka kuchokera kumanzere kupita kumanja kudutsa nthawi chifukwa mphamvu yamphamvu ya nyukiliya imakopa ma elekitironi mwamphamvu kwambiri. Mosiyana ndi zimenezi, mphamvu ya ionization imachepa kuchokera pamwamba kupita pansi kudutsa gulu chifukwa ma elekitironi omwe ali m'zipolopolo zakunja ali kutali ndi nyukiliyasi ndipo sali omangika kwambiri.
Kusagwira ntchito kwa magetsi
Kukana kwa ma elekitironi ndi mphamvu ya atomu yokoka ma elekitironi mu chomangira cha mankhwala. Kukana kwa ma elekitironi kumawonjezeka kuchokera kumanzere kupita kumanja kudutsa nthawi ndipo kumachepa kuchokera pamwamba kupita pansi kudutsa gulu.
Kugwirizana kwa Electron
Kugwirizana kwa ma elekitironi ndi kusintha kwa mphamvu komwe kumachitika atomu ikapeza elekitironi. Kugwirizana kwa ma elekitironi kumakhala koipa kwambiri kuyambira kumanzere kupita kumanja kudutsa nthawi inayake ndipo kumakhala koipa pang'ono kuchokera pamwamba kupita pansi pa gulu.
Mapeto
Kumvetsetsa bwino kapangidwe ka atomu ndi tebulo la zinthu zomwe zili ndi zinthu zofunika kwambiri pa chemistry. Kapangidwe ka atomu kamapereka kumvetsetsa kapangidwe ka zinthu ndi makhalidwe a tinthu tating'onoting'ono ta subatomic, pomwe tebulo la zinthu zomwe zili ndi zinthu limapereka njira yogawa ndi kulosera makhalidwe a zinthu. Mwa kumvetsetsa mbali zonse ziwiri, sitingopeza chidziwitso chakuya pa nkhani komanso luso logwiritsa ntchito chidziwitso chimenecho mu kafukufuku, mafakitale, ndi ukadaulo.
