Kant ndi Chiphunzitso cha Chidziwitso cha A Priori
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) ali ndi udindo wofunika kwambiri m'mbiri ya filosofi yamakono, makamaka pankhani yokambirana momwe chidziwitso cha anthu chimathekera komanso malire ake. Mu ntchito yake yofunika kwambiri, Critique of Pure Reason (1781/1787), Kant adayambitsa "kusintha" momwe filosofi imamvetsetsera ubale pakati pa munthu (wodziwa anthu) ndi chinthu (dziko lodziwika). Chofunika kwambiri pa kusinthaku ndi lingaliro la chidziwitso choyambirira—ndiko kuti, chidziwitso chomwe sichidalira zomwe zimamva koma chili ndi mphamvu yomangirira komanso yovomerezeka padziko lonse lapansi. Nkhaniyi ikufotokoza momwe Kant adapangira chiphunzitso chake cha chidziwitso choyambirira, chifukwa chake adachikana ngati "chobadwa nacho," komanso momwe adapangira mfundo yakuti kapangidwe ka chidziwitso cha anthu kamathandizira momwe dziko lapansi limaonekera kwa ife.
1. Chiyambi: mkangano pakati pa kulingalira bwino ndi kulamulira zinthu
Kant asanayambe, mikangano yayikulu mu epistemology yamakono inali yolamulidwa ndi magulu awiri. Anthu oganiza bwino—monga René Descartes , Baruch Spinoza, ndi Gottfried Leibniz—ankakonda kutsindika udindo wa kulingalira monga gwero la chidziwitso china. Iwo ankakhulupirira kuti pali zoona zomwe zingadziwike popanda chidziwitso, monga zoona mu masamu, logic, ndi lingaliro la chinthu kapena Mulungu. Kumbali ina, akatswiri ofufuza zinthu—monga John Locke , George Berkeley, makamaka David Hume—anatsutsa zonena izi. Malinga ndi mfundo yofufuza zinthu, malingaliro a anthu ayenera kutsatiridwa ndi chidziwitso; popanda chidziwitso, malingaliro ndi opanda pake.
Kant anavomereza kuti Hume “anamudzutsa ku tulo take tomwe tinkakhulupirira kwambiri.” Hume ananena kuti zinthu zambiri zomwe timaziona kuti ndi zotsimikizika—monga ubale wa chifukwa—sizioneka “monga” mu zomwe zinachitika. Chomwe timaona ndi chakuti chochitika A chimatsatiridwa ndi chochitika B mobwerezabwereza; kuchokera ku chizolowezi, timaganiza kuti A “zimayambitsa” B. Ngati zili choncho, kodi sayansi yachilengedwe, yomwe imagwiritsa ntchito malamulo a chifukwa cha chilengedwe chonse, ingakhale bwanji ndi chitsimikizo? Vutoli linapangitsa Kant kufunafuna mfundo yapakati: kuvomereza ndemanga ya akatswiri kuti chidziwitso chimafuna chidziwitso, komanso kusunga mfundo zomveka zomwe zimapangitsa kuti chilengedwe chonse chikhale chotheka.
2. Kodi chidziwitso choyambirira n'chiyani?
Mwachidule, Kant amasiyanitsa pakati pa chidziwitso cha priori ndi chidziwitso cha posteriori. Chidziwitso cha posteriori chimachokera ku zomwe adakumana nazo (monga, "madzi amawira pa kutentha kwina pansi pa mikhalidwe ina"). Chidziwitso cha priori sichidalira zomwe adakumana nazo, koma m'malo mwake chimadziwika kuti "chisanachitike" - m'lingaliro lomveka, osati la nthawi. Khalidwe lalikulu la chidziwitso cha priori ndikuti ndi lofunikira komanso lofunikira: limagwira ntchito pazochitika zonse ndipo silingakhale mwanjira ina.
Koma Kant anawonjezera kusiyana kwina kofunikira: pakati pa zigamulo zosanthula ndi zopanga. Zigamulo zosanthula ndi zomwe mawu ake ali mu mutuwo (monga, “anthu onse osakwatira ndi osakwatiwa”). Zigamulo zopanga zimawonjezera chidziwitso chatsopano chomwe sichili mu mutuwo (monga, “anthu osakwatira sakusangalala”). Malinga ndi mwambo womwe unachitika Kant asanakhalepo, nthawi zambiri ankaganiza kuti:
– kusanthula = chinthu choyamba
– kupanga = posteriori
Kant anasokoneza magawanowa ponena kuti pali zigamulo za "kupanga priori": zigamulo zomwe zimawonjezera chidziwitso chatsopano, koma zimakhalabe zapadziko lonse lapansi komanso zofunikira, komanso zodziyimira pawokha pa zomwe zachitika. Iyi ndi mfundo yaikulu ya polojekiti ya Kant: kufotokoza momwe chidziwitso cha kupanga priori chimathekera, komanso momwe zinthu zilili kuti chitheke.
3. N’chifukwa chiyani masamu ndi sayansi yachilengedwe zimafuna kuti zinthu zopangidwa zikhale zoyambirira?
Kant ankanena kuti masamu si kungosanthula chabe. Mwachitsanzo, mawu akuti “7 + 5 = 12” sangapezeke mwa kungosanthula lingaliro la “7 + 5.” Tiyenera “kupanga” nambalayo mwachibadwa. Mwa kuyankhula kwina, masamu amakulitsa chidziwitso (chopangidwa), koma kutsimikizika kwake sikuchokera ku kuyesa (osati posteriori). Choncho, masamu ndi chitsanzo chabwino cha chidziwitso chopangidwa ndi chinthu choyambirira.
N’chimodzimodzinso ndi sayansi yoyambira. Mawu monga akuti "chochitika chilichonse chili ndi chifukwa" sangangokhala okhazikika pa zomwe anthu akuwona; amanena kuti ndi ovomerezeka padziko lonse. Koma sayansi imadalira mfundo zimenezi kuti imvetse zomwe zachitika monga momwe zakonzedwera. Motero, Kant ankafuna kusonyeza kuti pali kapangidwe kena m’maganizo mwa munthu komwe kamapangitsa kuti zomwe asayansi akumana nazo zikhale zotheka, popanda kugwera mu chiphunzitso cha metaphysical.
4. Kusintha kwa Copernican: chinthucho chimasinthasintha malinga ndi nkhaniyo
Kant anatcha kusuntha kwake kuti "kusintha kwa Copernicus" mu filosofi. Ngakhale kale anthu ankaganiza kuti chidziwitso chiyenera kugwirizana ndi cholinga chake, Kant anasintha izi: malinga ngati chinthu chili "chinthu chathu," chiyenera kugwirizana ndi njira yathu yodziwira. Izi sizikutanthauza kuti dziko lapansi linalengedwa mwachisawawa ndi malingaliro, koma m'malo mwake zomwe zimachitika nthawi zonse zimapangidwa kale ndi mikhalidwe ina ya chidziwitso.
Mu dongosolo la Kant, sitidziwa "chinthucho chokha" (noumenon) mwachindunji, koma "chochitika" - dziko lapansi monga momwe limaonekera muzochitikira. Zochitika si zongopeka; ndi dziko lomwe timakumana nalo, koma nthawi zonse mu mawonekedwe omwe "amakonzedwa" ndi kapangidwe ka priori.
5. Mitundu ya chidziwitso: malo ndi nthawi ngati chinthu choyamba
Kant anasiyanitsa "magwero" awiri a chidziwitso: kuzindikira (kuzindikira, kulandira deta ya malingaliro) ndi kumvetsetsa (kutha kuganiza). Kuzindikira kumapereka "malingaliro," pomwe kumvetsetsa kumapereka "malingaliro." Popanda chidziwitso, malingaliro ndi opanda kanthu; popanda malingaliro, chidziwitso chimakhala chakhungu.
Mwa kuzindikira, Kant akupereka mitundu iwiri ya chidziwitso choyambirira: malo ndi nthawi. Malo si lingaliro lochokera ku zomwe zinthu zakunja zakumana nazo; m'malo mwake, zomwe "kunja" zimatheka chifukwa tili kale ndi dongosolo la malo. Mofananamo, nthawi: sitiganizira nthawi kuchokera ku zochitika zina; m'malo mwake, zochitika zimatha kuchitika "motsatizana" chifukwa cha nthawi yomwe yapitayo.
Motero, geometry ndi masamu zimakhala ndi chitsimikizo cha priori chifukwa zimagwirizana ndi kapangidwe ka malo ndi nthawi zomwe ndi zomwe zimachitika pa chidziwitso chilichonse cha munthu.
6. Magulu a kumvetsetsa: chifukwa ndi zotsatira zake, chinthu, ndi zina zotero.
Kuwonjezera pa mitundu ya chidziwitso, Kant adayambitsa "magulu" a kumvetsetsa: mfundo zoyambira zomwe sizimachokera ku zokumana nazo, koma m'malo mwake zimathandiza kuti zokumana nazo zikonzedwe ndikumveka. Zitsanzo zikuphatikizapo: chifukwa, chinthu, umodzi, kuchuluka, ndi kuthekera/kufunikira.
Causality ndiye chitsanzo chodziwika bwino chifukwa chikugwirizana mwachindunji ndi ndemanga ya Hume. Kant adati tikhoza kuwona zochitika ngati "zikuchitika chifukwa" cha zochitika zina pokhapokha ngati kumvetsetsa kwagwiritsa kale ntchito gulu la causality ku deta ya sensory. Ichi si chitsimikizo chochokera ku chizolowezi, koma chofunikira kumvetsetsa mndandanda wa zochitika ngati zochitika zenizeni, osati mndandanda wa malingaliro ongoganizira.
Motero, chidziwitso choyambirira malinga ndi Kant si mndandanda wa malingaliro enieni achibadwa monga "Mulungu alipo" kapena "mzimu sufa," koma ndi dongosolo lovomerezeka lomwe limalamulira momwe zokumana nazo zingawonedwere ndikuganiziridwa.
7. Malire a chidziwitso choyambirira: kutsutsa kwa metaphysics yachikhalidwe
Chimodzi mwa zinthu zofunika kwambiri pa chiphunzitso cha Kant ndi malire ake. Chifukwa magulu ndi mitundu ya chidziwitso chamkati imagwirira ntchito pa zomwe zingatheke, sitiyenera kuzigwiritsa ntchito kupitirira zomwe takumana nazo. Ma metaphysics achikhalidwe nthawi zambiri amayesa kutsimikizira zinthu zokhudza Mulungu, ufulu wonse, kapena kusafa kwa mzimu ngati zinthu zodziwika bwino. Kant adati kuyesa kumeneku kumabweretsa kutsutsana (antinomies), chifukwa nzeru imatenga malingaliro ovomerezeka kuti adziwike ndikuyika pa dziko lomwe silingathe kudziwidwa.
Apa ndi pomwe ndemanga ya Kant ndi "kupulumutsa" komanso "kuletsa." Iye amapulumutsa kutsimikizika kwa sayansi ndi masamu pofotokoza maziko awo a priori, koma amaletsa malingaliro a zinthu zauzimu kuti asanene kuti ali ndi chidziwitso chopitirira malire a zomwe adakumana nazo.
8. Kufunika kwa Kant lerolino
Chiphunzitso cha Kant cha chidziwitso choyambirira chikadali chofunikira kwambiri pakukambirana kwamakono momwe kapangidwe ka chidziwitso kamakhudzira kuzindikira, chilankhulo, ndi sayansi. Mu filosofi ya sayansi, funso la "chikhazikitso" kapena "zofunikira" zamalingaliro kuti munthu aone zinthu limakumbutsa lingaliro la Kant lakuti zomwe zikuchitika sizili zopanda tsankho. Mu psychology yamaganizo ndi kuzindikira, lingaliro lakuti ubongo uli ndi njira "zogwirira ntchito" zomwe zimapanga dziko lomwe tikuliwona limagwirizananso ndi Kant, ngakhale kuti mawu ndi njira zake zimasiyana.
Komabe, kutsutsa kwa Kant kulinso kochuluka. Akatswiri ena afilosofi amakayikira ngati malo ndi nthawi zilidi priori m'lingaliro la Kantian, makamaka pambuyo pa chitukuko cha sayansi yamakono. Ena amakayikira kusiyana kwakukulu pakati pa zochitika ndi noumena. Komabe, dongosolo la Kant likadali mfundo yofunika kwambiri: akuwonetsa kuti mikangano ya epistemological singasankhe pakati pa "zonse kuchokera ku zokumana nazo" kapena "zonse kuchokera ku kulingalira," chifukwa chidziwitso cha anthu ndi zotsatira za kuyanjana kwa zonse ziwiri mkati mwa kapangidwe kena.
Mapeto
Kwa Kant, chidziwitso cha priori si "chidziwitso chopanda chidziwitso," koma m'malo mwake ndi zinthu zomwe zimapangitsa kuti chidziwitso chikhale chothandiza komanso chokhoza kukhala chidziwitso. Malo ndi nthawi, monga mitundu ya chidziwitso, pamodzi ndi magulu omvetsetsa monga causality, amapanga chimango chomwe chimalola masamu ndi sayansi yachilengedwe kukhala ndi chilengedwe chonse komanso chofunikira. Komabe, chimango ichi chimaperekanso malire: nzeru ilibe ufulu wodzinenera chidziwitso cha zinthu zomwe sizingachitike. Kudzera mu chiphunzitso ichi cha chidziwitso cha priori, Kant sanangoyang'anira pakati pa kulingalira ndi kutsimikizira komanso adapanga njira ya filosofi yamakono powonetsa kuti munthu wodziwa bwino amatenga gawo lofunikira pakuumba dziko lapansi pamene tikuliona.
