Chiphunzitso cha mafuko ndi mafuko mu Anthropology
Kukambirana za mtundu ndi fuko ndi chimodzi mwa mitu yofunika kwambiri—ndipo yofunika kwambiri—mu maphunziro a anthu. Anthropology, monga sayansi yomwe imaphunzira za anthu m'mbali zawo zamoyo, chikhalidwe, ndi chikhalidwe, ili ndi mbiri yayitali yophunzira kusiyana kwa anthu. Komabe, maphunzirowa asinthanso kwambiri: kuyambira nthawi yomwe lingaliro la "mtundu" linkagwiritsidwa ntchito kugawa anthu m'magulu osiyanasiyana, mpaka njira yamakono yomwe imagogomezera kuti mtundu umamveka bwino ngati kapangidwe ka chikhalidwe , pomwe fuko limamveka ngati chidziwitso cha chikhalidwe cha anthu.
1. Mtundu: Kuchokera ku Gulu la Zamoyo mpaka Kumanga Anthu
M'zaka za m'ma 18 ndi 19, malingaliro aku Europe okhudza mtundu adasinthika pamodzi ndi ukoloni, kufalikira kwa mafumu, ndi kukwera kwa sayansi yamakono. Asayansi panthawiyo ankagawa anthu m'magulu kutengera mawonekedwe akuthupi monga mtundu wa khungu, mawonekedwe a chigaza, kapena kapangidwe ka tsitsi. Magulu amenewa nthawi zambiri sanali osalowerera ndale koma anali ndi ndale: mtundu unkagwiritsidwa ntchito kulungamitsa ukapolo, ulamuliro wa atsamunda, komanso kusalingana pakati pa anthu.
Mu kafukufuku wakale wa anthu, mwambo wa anthropometry—kuyeza thupi la munthu—unayamba, kulumikiza kusiyana kwa zamoyo ndi zomwe zimanena za nzeru za gulu, makhalidwe abwino, kapena “kupita patsogolo.” Mchitidwewu unapanga maziko a zomwe pambuyo pake zimatchedwa tsankho la sayansi. Ngakhale panthawiyo zinkaonedwa ngati zasayansi, njira imeneyi tsopano ikumveka kuti ndi yovuta chifukwa inkayerekeza kusiyanasiyana kwa thupi ndi makhalidwe amaganizo kapena luso la anthu, ngakhale umboni wamphamvu wa sayansi womwe suchirikiza mgwirizano wotere.
Kukula kwa majini m'zaka za m'ma 20 ndi 21 kwalimbitsa kutsutsa lingaliro la mtundu ngati gulu lolimba la zamoyo. Kafukufuku akusonyeza kuti kusiyana kwa majini a anthu kuli kwakukulu m'magulu omwe amaonedwa kuti ndi "mitundu" kuposa pakati pawo. Izi zikutanthauza kuti malire a mafuko ndi osamveka bwino mwachibadwa. Kusiyana kwa thupi kulipo, koma sikupanga maphatikizidwe osiyana a majini monga momwe akuyembekezeredwa mu lingaliro lakale la fuko.
Choncho, maphunziro a anthu amakono amaona mtundu ngati gulu la anthu: gulu lopangidwa, losungidwa, ndi lopatsidwa tanthauzo kudzera m'mbiri, ndale, ndi mabungwe a anthu. Mtundu “umagwira ntchito” pagulu—wokhudza mwayi wopeza maphunziro, ntchito, chitetezo, ndi chisamaliro chaumoyo—ngakhale kuti ulibe maziko olimba a zamoyo monga gulu la anthu.
2. Fuko: Chikhalidwe Chogwirizana ndi Ubale ndi Kusintha kwa Zinthu
Mosiyana ndi mtundu, womwe nthawi zambiri umagwirizanitsidwa ndi makhalidwe akuthupi, mtundu nthawi zambiri umatanthauza kudziwika kwa gulu logwirizana ndi zinthu zachikhalidwe monga chilankhulo, miyambo, mbiri, chipembedzo, miyambo, ndi lingaliro la komwe anthu amachokera. Komabe, mtundu siwokhazikika. Akatswiri ambiri a zachikhalidwe cha anthu amagogomezera kuti mtundu umasintha, umasintha malinga ndi chikhalidwe cha anthu, zachuma, komanso ndale.
Mmodzi mwa anthu ofunikira kwambiri mu chiphunzitso cha mafuko ndi Fredrik Barth, makamaka kudzera mu lingaliro lake la malire a mafuko. Barth adagogomezera kuti chofunika kwambiri mu mafuko si kusiyana komwe kumaonedwa kuti ndi "zachikhalidwe," koma malire a chikhalidwe omwe amasiyanitsa gulu monga "ife" ndi "iwo." Malire awa amatha kusungidwa ngakhale zinthu zachikhalidwe zitasintha. Mwanjira ina, mafuko samakhalapo chifukwa chikhalidwe chawo sichisintha, koma chifukwa cha njira zachikhalidwe zomwe zimatsimikizira kusiyana ndi umembala nthawi zonse.
M'moyo watsiku ndi tsiku, fuko lingakhale gwero la mgwirizano, kunyada, ndi chithandizo cha anthu. Kumbali ina, fuko likhozanso kulowetsedwa mu ndale—monga, m'mipikisano yazinthu, zisankho, mikangano pakati pa magulu, kapena mfundo zodzizindikiritsa. M'dziko lamakono, fuko nthawi zambiri limagwirizanitsidwa ndi nkhani za anthu ochepa, kusamuka, kuphatikizana, ndi kuzindikira ufulu wa chikhalidwe.
3. Malingaliro Aakulu a Mtundu ndi Fuko
Mu maphunziro a anthu ndi sayansi ya chikhalidwe cha anthu, pali njira zingapo zophunzirira za kumvetsetsa mtundu ndi fuko:
a. Kukhulupirira kuti zinthu ziyamba kale
Njira yoyambirira imawona ubale wa mafuko ngati "wachilengedwe," wolimba, komanso wozikidwa pa chiyambi chofanana, magazi, dziko lakwawo, kapena miyambo yomwe idaperekedwa kwa mibadwo yambiri. Lingaliro ili limatithandiza kufotokoza chifukwa chake kudziwika kwa fuko zimatha kukhala ndi malingaliro komanso zakuya kwambiri. Komabe, nthawi zambiri anthu amatsutsa mfundo yakuti munthu amayamba kukonda zinthu zakale chifukwa cha chizolowezi chake choganiza kuti kudziwika kwa fuko ngati chinthu chokhazikika komanso chosasintha, ngakhale umboni wovomerezeka ukusonyeza kuti kudziwika kwa gulu kungasinthidwe.
b. Kugwiritsa ntchito zida
Kutsatira njira zaukadaulo kumaona fuko ngati chida chomwe chingagwiritsidwe ntchito kukwaniritsa zolinga zina—monga kupeza mphamvu zandale, kupeza phindu pazachuma, kapena kusonkhanitsa anthu ambiri. M'malingaliro awa, atsogoleri andale kapena atsogoleri ammudzi amatha kulimbikitsa kudziwika kwa fuko kuti apeze chithandizo. Kutsutsa: fuko nthawi zonse silimangokhala "chida" chokha; kwa anthu ambiri, ndi moyo weniweni komanso wopindulitsa.
c. Kupanga zinthu
Constructivism yakhala njira yodziwika bwino mu anthropology yamakono. Ikugogomezera kuti mitundu ndi mafuko zimapangidwa kudzera mu njira zakale, kuyanjana kwa anthu, mfundo za boma, ndi ubale wamphamvu. Constructivism sikutanthauza kuti mitundu ndi "yabodza," koma imasonyeza kuti imapangidwa ndikukambidwa. Fuko ndi fuko ndi zenizeni m'zotsatira zake, ngakhale njira zomwe zimapangidwira ndi zachikhalidwe ndi mbiri yakale.
d. Njira Yoyendetsera Zachuma ndi Zandale
Njira imeneyi imayang'ana momwe capitalism, ukoloni, ndi mabungwe aboma amapangira magulu amitundu ndi mafuko. Mitundu ndi mafuko zimamveka kuti zimagwirizana kwambiri ndi ntchito, magawano a magulu, kusamuka, ndi mfundo zachitukuko. Mwachitsanzo, mitundu ina ya mafuko ingagwirizane ndi ntchito zinazake, kusiyanitsa anthu okhala m'nyumba, kapena mwayi wopeza mautumiki osiyanasiyana kwa anthu onse. Njira imeneyi ikuwonetsa kuti kudziwika sikukhudza chikhalidwe chokha komanso kugawa zinthu.
4. Fuko, Fuko, ndi Mphamvu: Maphunziro ochokera m'mbiri
Anthropology imaphunziranso kuchokera ku mbiri yake yakale. Mu nthawi ya atsamunda, kafukufuku wina wa anthropology adagwiritsidwa ntchito pothandizira kayendetsedwe ka atsamunda. Magulu a "fuko," "fuko," kapena "achikhalidwe" nthawi zina amagwiritsidwa ntchito polamulira anthu, kudziwa misonkho, kapena kudziwa omwe amaonedwa kuti ndi "amakono" ndi omwe amaonedwa kuti ndi "achikhalidwe."
Masiku ano, akatswiri ambiri a za chikhalidwe cha anthu amagogomezera kufunika kwa kusinkhasinkha mozama (reflexivity): kuzindikira kuti chidziwitso cha sayansi sichimabuka mumkhalidwe wopanda kanthu, koma nthawi zonse chimagwirizana ndi mphamvu. Kudzera mu kusinkhasinkha mozama, maphunziro a za chikhalidwe cha anthu amafuna kuyika zomwe anthu amakumana nazo m'magulu ochepetsedwa ngati gawo lalikulu la kusanthula, kukana zonena za anthu ofunikira kwambiri zomwe zimawapangitsa kukhala magulu a zamoyo kapena miyambo yosiyana siyana.
5. Nkhani ya ku Indonesia: Kusiyanasiyana, Kudziwika, ndi Mavuto
Indonesia ndi dziko lomwe lili ndi mitundu yosiyanasiyana, zilankhulo, ndi chikhalidwe. Pachifukwa ichi, zokambirana za mafuko zimakhala zofunikira pankhani monga kuphatikizana kwa mayiko, kudziyimira pawokha m'madera, ufulu wa anthu ammudzi, mikangano ya anthu ammudzi, ndi ndale zodziwika. Kudziwika kwa mafuko kumatha kuonekera kwambiri pazochitika zina—mwachitsanzo, panthawi ya mpikisano wazachuma kapena kusamvana kwandale—komanso kumatha kufooka pamene mgwirizano wa magulu osiyanasiyana ukulimba, mwachitsanzo kudzera mu maphunziro, kukula kwa mizinda, ndi ukwati wa mafuko osiyanasiyana.
Pakadali pano, lingaliro la mtundu m'dziko la Indonesia lili ndi mbiri yosiyana ndi m'maiko ena, koma limakhalabe mu mawonekedwe a maudindo, manyazi amtundu wa khungu, ndi magulu enaake a anthu omwe adachokera mu nthawi ya atsamunda komanso omwe adapangidwa ndi chikhalidwe chodziwika bwino . Anthropology imathandiza kuwululira momwe magulu a anthuwa amapangidwira komanso momwe amagwirira ntchito m'njira zotsatizana kapena zopatsa ulemu.
6. Kesimpulan
Malingaliro a mafuko ndi mafuko mu maphunziro a anthu amasonyeza kuti kusiyana kwa anthu sikungathe kufotokozedwa kudzera mu zamoyo kapena chikhalidwe chokha. M'lingaliro lamakono, fuko limamveka bwino ngati kapangidwe ka chikhalidwe chokhala ndi zotsatira zenizeni pa moyo. Fuko ndi chikhalidwe chosinthika komanso chikhalidwe, chopangidwa ndi malire a chikhalidwe, mbiri yakale, ndi ubale wamphamvu.
Mwa kuphatikiza kusanthula kwa zamoyo, mbiri yakale, ndi chikhalidwe cha anthu, maphunziro a anthu amakono amayesetsa kuthetsa malingaliro omwe akhalapo kwa nthawi yayitali omwe amatsimikizira maudindo a anthu ndikumvetsetsa momwe magulu amadziwikirana komanso momwe amasungidwira. Pomaliza, kuphunzira za mtundu ndi fuko sikungokhudza kugawa magulu, koma za chilungamo, kuzindikira, komanso momwe timamvetsetsera anthu m'gulu lomwe likukula komanso logwirizana.
