Isihloko mayelana nethiyori ye-Atomic kanye nethiyori ye-kinetic
Ithiyori ye-athomu
Sekuyizinkulungwane zeminyaka, amaGreki asendulo ayekholelwa ukuthi yonke into emsulwa (njengegolide, insimbi, njll.) yayiqukethe ama-athomu. Ngokusho kwawo, uma into emsulwa isikwa ibe yizicucu ezincane, khona-ke izingxenye ezincane ziyasikwa futhi, bese zisikwa emuva… njalo njalo, khona-ke kuzoba nezicucu ezincane kakhulu ezingenakusikwa futhi. Izicucu ezincane kakhulu ezingenakusikwa futhi zibizwa ngokuthi ama-athomu. I-Atom isho ukuthi “ayinakuhlukaniswa” (ulimi lwesiGreki)
Ngaleso sikhathi, i-athomu ibhekwa njengengasahlukanisiwe. Kodwa kamuva abanye ososayensi bathola ama-electron nama-nuclei e-athomu (ama-proton nama-neutron) kangangokuthi ukucabanga ukuthi ama-athomu awakwazi ukuhlukaniswa kwakungalungile. Ngakho-ke, ama-athomu akhiwa ama-electron (ashajwe kabi) kanye nama-nuclei e-athomu. Ama-electron azungeza i-nucleus. Ngaphakathi kwe-nucleus, kukhona ama-proton (ashajwe kahle) kanye nama-neutron (angathathi hlangothi noma angashajwe).
Kukhona enye inkolelo-mbono; igama elithi ithiyori eqhubekayo. Le nkolelo-mbono ithi izinto ezimsulwa zingahlukaniswa zibe yi-infinity. Ngokwale nkolelo-mbono, ayikho into efana nengxenye encane kunazo zonke. Izingcezu ezincane kakhulu zisenganqunywa zibe yizingcezu ezincane. Ngakho-ke, iba yi-angenamkhawulo. Yimuphi kula ma-theory amabili onembile? Inkolelo-mbono ye-athomu efanele noma inkolelo-mbono eqhubekayo?
Ku-physics, yonke inkolelo-mbono izoqashelwa ngokwesayensi uma inkolelo-mbono ingafakazelwa ekuhlolweni. Ekhulwini le-18, le-19 nelama-20, ngokusebenzisa ukuhlolwa okwenziwa ososayensi, inkolelo-mbono ye-athomu yayiyiqiniso.
Okokuqala, qonda ukubuyekezwa okulandelayo. Izinto ziyizinto ezimsulwa ezingenakwahlukaniswa zibe ezinye izinto ngamakhemikhali, isibonelo igolide (Au), insimbi (Fe), ithusi (Cu), i-zinc (Zn), i-Sodium (Na), i-Calcium (Ca), i-chlorine (Cl), i-Nitrogen (N), i-oxygen (O), i-hydrogen (H) njll. Ngaphandle kwezinto, kukhona nezinto ezihlanganisiwe. Izinto ezihlanganisiwe zakhiwe yizinto. Ngenxa yokuthi yakhiwe yizinto, into ehlanganisiwe isengahlukaniswa ibe yizinto. Izibonelo zezinto ezihlanganisiwe ngamanzi.
Ingxenye encane kakhulu yesakhi yi-athomu, kanti ingxenye encane kakhulu yesakhi iyi-molecule. Ama-molecule akhiwa ama-athomu anamathelana ndawonye. Igolide elihlanzekile liyisibonelo sesakhi. Igolide elihlanzekile liqukethe ama-athomu egolide (Au). Izingcezu zensimbi nazo ziyisibonelo sezakhi. Insimbi ikhiwa ama-athomu ensimbi (Fe). Ngakho-ke, isakhi siyinto emsulwa equkethe ama-athomu afanayo.
Amanzi ovame ukuwabona, ukuwabamba nokuwaphuza akhiwa ama-molecule amanzi (ifomula yamakhemikhali yi-H2O ) . Ama-molecule amanzi aqukethe ama-athomu amabili e-hydrogen (H) kanye ne-athomu elilodwa le-oxygen (O).
Nazi ezinye izibonakaliso zenkolelo-mbono ye-athomu:
Okokuqala, umthetho wokuqhathanisa njalo.
Umthetho wokuqhathanisa uthi uma izakhi zihlangana zibe ama-compounds, ama-compounds akhiwe anesilinganiso esifanayo sobunzima. Isibonelo, usawoti. Usawoti esiwubonayo uyi-compound equkethe ama-molecule kasawoti (NaCl). Ngokwemvelo, ama-molecule kasawoti ahlala ekhiwa izingxenye ezingu-23 ze-sodium (Na) kanye nezingxenye ezingu-35 ze-chlorine (Cl).
Ithiyori eqhubekayo ayikwazi ukuyichaza, kodwa ithiyori ye-athomu ingakuchaza. Ngokusho kwethiyori ye-athomu, ama-athomu ayizingxenye ezincane kakhulu zesakhi ukuze ama-athomu abe nobunzima. Isilinganiso sobuningi bezakhi ze-compound kumele sihlobane nobunzima obuhlobene bama-athomu akha isakhi. Ngokusekelwe enanini lesakhi ngasinye esidala ama-compound, ososayensi banquma ubunzima obuhlobene bama-athomu. Kuthiwa buhlobene ngoba ubunzima obuhlobene besakhi buqhathaniswa nobunzima obuhlobene bamanye ama-athomu e-elemental.
I-hydrogen yi-athomu elula kakhulu, ngakho-ke isetshenziswa njengesilinganiso. Isisindo esihlobene se-athomu ye-hydrogen (H) sinikezwa inani elingu-1. Ngokusebenzisa isisindo esihlobene se-athomu ye-hydrogen njengesilinganiso, isisindo esihlobene se-athomu yekhabhoni (C) sinikezwa inani elingu-12,
isisindo esihlobene se-athomu ye-oxygen (O) sinikezwe inani elingu-16 njalo njalo (bheka ithebula lezinto eziphindaphindwayo). Isisindo esihlobene se-athomu ye-carbon = 12 sisho ukuthi isisindo se-athomu eyodwa ye-carbon sikhulu ngokuphindwe ka-12 kunesisindo se-athomu eyodwa ye-hydrogen (H). Isisindo esihlobene se-athomu ye-oxygen = 16 sisho ukuthi isisindo se-athomu ye-oxygen siphakeme ngokuphindwe ka-16 kunesisindo se-athomu eyodwa ye-hydrogen (H).
Kuhlelo Lwamazwe Ngamazwe (i-SI) sinesilinganiso sobuningi, okungukuthi i-iridium platinum, egcinwa ezikhungweni zesisindo nobukhulu bamazwe ngamazwe eFrance. Ngaphansi kwesivumelwano samazwe ngamazwe, isisindo se-iridium platinum singama-kg angu-1, lokhu kuyikhilogramu ejwayelekile. Esikalini se-athomu, sinesilinganiso sesibili sobuningi, okungukuthi ama-athomu e-carbon angu-12 C. Ngokusekelwe ezivumelwaneni zamazwe ngamazwe, isisindo se-athomu eyodwa yekhabhoni engu-12 C singamayunithi angu-12,0000 e-athomu ahlanganisiwe (okufingqiwe ngokuthi u).
1 u = 1.66 x 10 -27 kg.
Isisindo se-1 I-athomu yekhabhoni (C) = 12.0000 u, isisindo se-1 I-athomu ye-hydrogen (H) = 1,0078 u, isisindo se-1 I-athomu ye-oxygen (O) = 15.9994 u, isisindo se-1 I-athomu ye-Sodium = 22.9897 u njalo njalo. Ngokuphathelene nesisindo se-athomu, singabonakala ngokugcwele kuthebula lezinto eziphindaphindwayo.
Ngaphezu kwesisindo se-athomu, kukhona nesisindo se-molecule. Isisindo se-molecule yisisindo esiphelele sama-athomu e-molecule. Isibonelo, isisindo se-molecule kasawoti (NaCl) = isisindo se-athomu eyodwa ye-sodium (Na) + isisindo se-athomu eyodwa ye-chlorine (Cl). Isisindo sama-molecule amanzi (H 2 O) = isisindo sama-athomu amabili e-hydrogen (H) + isisindo se-athomu eyodwa ye-oxygen (O).
Okwesibili, ukunyakaza okunsundu
Ezikhathini zasendulo, kwakukhona isazi sezinto eziphilayo saseNgilandi okuthiwa uRobert Brown. Wayecwaninga ngempova efakwa emanzini (1827). Amanzi nempova kubonakala kusetshenziswa imakroskopu. URobert Brown wakuthola kungavamile ngemva kokubona impova ihamba yodwa. Kuyamangaza ngoba impova iyahamba. Indlela yokunyakaza kwempova iqondiswa ngokungahleliwe, kodwa iyaqhubeka. Usola ukuthi ukunyakaza kuyimpilo, lapho impova ihlala khona ukuze ikwazi ukuhamba. Kodwa ukuqagela kwakhe akulungile ngoba izinhlayiya ezincane eziphilayo ezifana nempova nazo ziyahamba lapho zifakwa emanzini. Lokhu kunyakaza kubizwa ngokuthi ukunyakaza kweBrownian.
Lokhu kutholakala akunakuchazwa kuze kube yilapho kusungulwa inkolelo-mbono ye-kinetic.
Ithiyori ye-Kinetic
I-Kinetic isho ukuhamba (ngesiGreki). Ithiyori ye-kinetic ithi yonke into iqukethe ama-athomu noma ama-molecule nokuthi ama-athomu noma ama-molecule ahamba ngokungahleliwe.
Uma uhamba, ama-athomu noma ama-molecule kufanele asheshise. Ama-athomu noma ama-molecule nawo anesisindo. Ngenxa yokuthi anesisindo (m) kanye nesivinini (v), i-athomu noma i-molecule inamandla e-kinetic (EK) kanye nesivinini (p). Amandla e-kinetic: EK = 1/2 mv 2 . Ngenkathi isivinini: p = m v. Ngaphezu kwesivinini, kukhona amandla. Uma uhamba, kungenzeka ukuthi kube nokushayisana. Ngakho-ke, amandla avela ngenxa yezinguquko kusivinini lapho kwenzeka ukushayisana.
Singasho ukuthi inkolelo-mbono ye-kinetic isekelwe emandleni e-kinetic, umfutho, kanye namandla. Lezi zinto ezintathu zifundwa ngesihloko se-motion dynamics (imithetho kaNewton, i-impulse, kanye nomfutho). Umehluko ukuthi ku-kinetic theory, sisebenzisa i-dynamics ezingeni lama-athomu noma ama-molecule. Inkolelo-mbono ye-kinetic yathuthukiswa nguBoyle (1627-1691), uDaniel Bernoulli (1700-1782), uJoule (1818-1889), uKronig (1822-1879), uRudolph Clausius (1822-1888) kanye noClerk Maxwell (1831-1879).
Ukuba khona kwale nkolelo-mbono ye-kinetic kungachaza ukutholakala kukaBrown. Ngokusho kwenkolelo-mbono ye-kinetic, impova iyahamba ngoba ama-molecule amanzi ahamba ngokushesha ayiqhuba. Inani lama-molecule amanzi likhulu kakhulu, ngakho-ke impova isunduzwa ngezindlela ezahlukene.
Ngokusekelwe emthethweni wokuqhathanisa njalo kanye nokutholakala kokunyakaza okunsundu, inkolelo-mbono ye-athomu iya ngokuya ikholeka kososayensi. Ama-athomu ayizingcezu ezincane kakhulu zanoma iyiphi into. Ngakho-ke, i-athomu inosayizi. Ungakanani usayizi we-athomu?
Ngo-1905, u-Einstein wahlola ngombono ubukhulu bama-athomu. Ngokusekelwe kumbono we-athomu, umbono we-kinetic kanye nedatha etholakale ngokuhlolwa, wathola ukuthi ububanzi be-athomu babungaba ngu-10 -10 m. Ngakho-ke, ububanzi be-athomu butholakala ngokubala. Ubukhulu bama-athomu butholakale, ngakho-ke umbono we-athomu uyaqashelwa, kanye nombono we-kinetic.
