Filosofi ya Hume ya Chipembedzo
David Hume (1711–1776) anali m'modzi mwa akatswiri afilosofi otchuka kwambiri mu mwambo wa Chingerezi. Amadziwika ndi kukayikira kwake zomwe akunena kuposa zomwe zimamveka komanso kusanthula kwake mozama momwe chidziwitso cha anthu chimagwirira ntchito. Ponena za chipembedzo, lingaliro la Hume nthawi zambiri limawerengedwa ngati kutsutsa kwakukulu kwa filosofi kwa mfundo zomveka bwino za kukhalapo kwa Mulungu, kuvomereza zozizwitsa, ndi chikhulupiriro mu dongosolo la makhalidwe abwino lotsimikiziridwa ndi vumbulutso. Komabe, ndikofunikira kuzindikira: Hume sanango "kukana chipembedzo." Amamveka bwino kwambiri ngati woganiza yemwe adafufuza maziko a chipembedzo - ngati zikhulupiriro zachipembedzo zitha kutsimikiziridwa ndi umboni ndi malingaliro abwino.
Chiyambi cha Empiricism ndi Skepticism ya Hume
Pakati pa filosofi ya Hume pali mfundo ya empiricism: malingaliro onse ofunika ayenera kutsatiridwa ku "malingaliro," kutanthauza, zochitika mwachindunji monga kuwona, kumva ululu, kapena kumva malingaliro. Malingaliro, malinga ndi Hume, ndi makope ofooka a malingaliro. Ngati wina apereka lingaliro, Hume angafunse kuti: kodi malingaliro ndi magwero a lingaliro limenelo ndi ati? Ngati palibe gwero lomveka bwino la zochitika, ndiye kuti lingalirolo likukayikiridwa kuti ndi losamveka bwino kapena lonyenga.
Maganizo amenewa ali ndi tanthauzo lalikulu pa zokambirana za Mulungu, moyo, kapena zenizeni zosaoneka za zinthu zakuthupi. Hume ankakonda kuona zonena zambiri za zinthu zakuthupi—kuphatikizapo zonena zina zachipembedzo—ngati zopanda maziko okwanira pa zokumana nazo. Chifukwa chake, adalimbikitsa kuchepetsa chidziwitso ku zomwe zingatsimikizidwe kudzera mu zokumana nazo ndi kulingalira mosamala.
Kutsutsa kwa Mkangano wa Kapangidwe (Teleological)
Chimodzi mwa zinthu zodziwika bwino zomwe Hume adapereka ku filosofi ya chipembedzo ndi buku lake lotchedwa Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion lomwe linasindikizidwa atamwalira. Pamenepo anatsutsa mfundo yokhudza kapangidwe ka zinthu, lingaliro lakuti dongosolo ndi zovuta za chilengedwe chonse zimasonyeza wopanga wanzeru (Mulungu). Mfundo imeneyi nthawi zambiri imagwiritsa ntchito fanizo: monga momwe wotchi yovuta imasonyezera wopanga mawotchi, momwemonso chilengedwe chimasonyeza wopanga chilengedwe.
Kudzera mwa Philo, Hume akufotokoza zolakwika zingapo zazikulu. Choyamba, kufanana pakati pa chilengedwe ndi zinthu zakale za anthu kumaonedwa ngati kofooka. Tili ndi chidziwitso chachindunji cha mawotchi ndi opanga mawotchi, koma tilibe chidziwitso cha "wopanga chilengedwe chonse." Chifukwa chake, kutenga lingaliro kuchokera kuzinthu zachilengedwe zomwe zimachitika nthawi zonse kupita ku Mulungu wonga munthu mwina ndi vuto losafunikira.
Chachiwiri, ngakhale titavomereza kuti pali "wopanga," mfundo yokhudza kapangidwe ka zinthu sizimangotsogolera ku Mulungu wangwiro, wabwino kwambiri, komanso wamphamvu kwambiri wokhulupirira Mulungu m'modzi. Kuchokera ku zotsatira zake, tingathe kungoganiza kuti zimayambitsa zinthu molingana ndi zotsatira zake. Ngati dziko lapansi lili ndi chisokonezo, kuvutika, ndi "zofooka," ndiye kuti mfundo zomwe zingatheke ndi izi: kaya wopanga zinthu ali ndi malire, kapena opanga ambiri amagwira ntchito limodzi, kapena dziko lapansi ndi zotsatira za kuyesa, osati ntchito yangwiro. Hume mwadala akunena kuti mfundo yokhudza kapangidwe ka zinthu, ikagwiritsidwa ntchito mosamalitsa, sipereka maziko olimba a zaumulungu wakale.
Vuto la Upandu ndi Kuvutika
Hume anagogomezeranso kwambiri vuto la choipa. Ngati Mulungu ndi wamphamvuyonse komanso wokoma mtima, n’chifukwa chiyani dziko lapansi lili lodzaza ndi mavuto? Mu Dialogues, akulongosola mfundo yakuti zomwe anthu amakumana nazo zimasonyeza mitundu yambiri yosafunikira ya ululu: matenda, masoka achilengedwe, chiwawa, ndi mavuto omwe amagwera anthu abwino ndi oipa.
Kwa Hume, kuyesa kuteteza Mulungu mwa kunena kuti "kuvutika kuyenera kukhala ndi cholinga chobisika" kulibe maziko olimba otsimikizira. Anthu angaganize zifukwa, koma nthawi zambiri izi zimakhala malingaliro osatsutsika. Hume samangonena kuti "Mulungu kulibe," koma m'malo mwake amagogomezera zolephera zathu pakuganizira za umunthu wa Mulungu kuchokera ku dziko lodzaza ndi zotsutsana zamakhalidwe ndi zakuthupi.
Kudzudzula Zozizwitsa: Miyezo ya Umboni ndi Umboni
Mu nkhani yake yotchuka, "Of Miracles" (gawo la An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding), Hume adapereka ndemanga imodzi mwa mfundo zazikulu zokhudzana ndi chikhulupiriro mu zozizwitsa. Zozizwitsa zimamveka ngati kuphwanya malamulo a chilengedwe . Vuto ndilakuti malamulo achilengedwe amaganiziridwa kuchokera ku zomwe zimachitika nthawi zonse. Munthu akamanena kuti adawona chozizwitsa, timakumana ndi zinthu ziwiri zomwe zingatheke: (1) malamulo achilengedwe ndi oona ndipo umboni ndi wabodza, kapena (2) umboni ndi wowona ndipo malamulo achilengedwe amaphwanyidwa.
Hume anati kulingalira mwanzeru kungasankhe njira yabwino kwambiri. Chifukwa chakuti zomwe zachitika pochirikiza malamulo achilengedwe n’zofala kwambiri komanso zogwirizana, mwayi woti umboni wa anthu ndi wabodza (chifukwa cha chinyengo, chinyengo, kutengeka maganizo, kusakumbukira bwino, kapena tsankho) nthawi zambiri umakhala wokwera kuposa mwayi woti malamulo achilengedwe aphwanyidwe. Mwanjira ina, Hume amafuna umboni wapadera kwambiri pazifukwa zodabwitsa. Kuti chozizwitsa chikhale chodalirika, umboni wochirikiza uyenera kukhala "wozizwitsa" (wosatheka kukhala wabodza) kuposa kuphwanya malamulo achilengedwe okha—chomwe Hume adati sichinakwaniritsidwe m'machitidwe.
Ananenanso zinthu zokhudzana ndi maganizo ndi chikhalidwe cha anthu: anthu amakonda kukopeka ndi nkhani za zozizwitsa, ndipo magulu achipembedzo ali ndi chilimbikitso cholimbikitsa nkhani za zozizwitsa. Chifukwa chake, Hume adati mwambo wa umboni wachipembedzo sunali wolimba mokwanira kutsutsa umboni wofala wa dongosolo lachilengedwe.
Chipembedzo monga Chochitika cha Munthu: Mbiri Yachilengedwe ya Chipembedzo
Pamene Dialogues and Of Miracles ikuwunika mfundo zomveka za zaumulungu, buku lina la Hume, The Natural History of Religion, limaona chipembedzo kuchokera pa “magwero achilengedwe.” Apa Hume akufunsa kuti: n’chifukwa chiyani anthu ali ndi chipembedzo? Yankho lake silili chifukwa chakuti anthu apeza zoona zenizeni zauzimu, koma chifukwa cha zinthu zamaganizo ndi chikhalidwe cha anthu.
Malinga ndi Hume, kusatsimikizika kwa moyo—ngozi, tsoka, chiyembekezo, mantha—kumapangitsa anthu kufunafuna kufotokozera ndi chitetezo. Mu mkhalidwe wofooka, anthu amakonda kusandutsa mphamvu za chilengedwe kukhala zinthu zomwe zingathe “kukambidwa” kudzera m’pemphero ndi miyambo. Hume anatsutsanso kuti kupembedza milungu yambiri (milungu yambiri) kunali “kwachilengedwe” m’mbiri kuposa kulambira Mulungu mmodzi, chifukwa kunali koyenera kwambiri malingaliro a anthu ogawa mphamvu za dziko lapansi kukhala zinthu zambiri. Kupembedza Mulungu mmodzi kunabuka pambuyo pake, koma kunabweretsanso zotsatira monga kukana ndi kusalolera pamene ulamuliro umodzi waumulungu unayikidwa ngati chowonadi chokha.
Kusanthula kumeneku sikukutanthauza kuti zipembedzo zonse ndi zabodza chifukwa chakuti zili ndi zifukwa zamaganizo. M'malo mwake, Hume akufuna kusonyeza kuti chipembedzo chingafotokozedwe popanda kuyerekezera zoona za zomwe amanena za zaumulungu. Motero, chipembedzo—makamaka mbali ina—chikuwoneka ngati chinthu chochokera ku zosowa za anthu, osati chinthu chochokera ku ziwonetsero zomveka bwino.
Zotsatira za Lingaliro la Hume: Malire a Kuganiza mu Chipembedzo
Chothandizira chachikulu cha Hume chingakhale chakuti akugogomezera malire a kulingalira ndi umboni. Anakana zikhulupiriro zochokera pa malingaliro achilengedwe kapena miyambo ya umboni popanda kutsimikizira kokwanira. Mwanjira ina, Hume anathandiza kupanga njira yamakono yoganizira yomwe imatsutsa kwambiri ulamuliro, imafuna umboni wambiri, komanso yodziwa bwino tsankho la anthu.
Kumbali ina, kutsutsa kwa Hume kunayambitsanso mayankho ochokera kwa akatswiri ambiri achipembedzo. Ena ankanena kuti Hume anagogomezera kwambiri miyezo yovomerezeka, zomwe zinapangitsa kuti mbali za chipembedzo—zokumana nazo mkati, tanthauzo la moyo , ndi kudzipereka kwa makhalidwe abwino—zisakule bwino. Komabe, ichi ndiye cholinga cha Hume chokhalitsa: anakakamiza kukambirana zachipembedzo kuti kukhale kowonekera bwino, kusiyanitsa pakati pa zomwe zingawonetsedwe ndi umboni ndi zomwe zimangokhulupiriridwa kuchokera ku miyambo kapena zosowa zamaganizo.
Mapeto
Nzeru ya Hume ya chipembedzo ingafupikitsidwe ngati pulojekiti yowunikira mfundo zazikulu: kufufuza zomwe tingadziwe ndi kulungamitsa zokhudza Mulungu, zozizwitsa, ndi zomwe amati ndi zaumulungu. Kudzera mu kutsutsa kwake mfundo yokhudza kapangidwe ka zinthu, kutsindika kwake vuto la kuvutika, kusanthula kwake koyerekeza umboni wodabwitsa, ndi kufotokoza kwake kwachilengedwe kwa chiyambi cha chipembedzo, Hume adakhazikitsa maziko a kukayikira kwachipembedzo komwe kukupitirirabe kukhala ndi mphamvu lerolino. Sanapereke nthawi zonse kukana kotheratu kuti Mulungu alipo, koma adawonetsa kuti mfundo zambiri zachipembedzo zachikhalidwe sizolimba monga momwe zingawonekere zikayesedwa ndi mfundo za empiricism ndi njira zolimba zoganizira. M'dziko lamakono lomwe likufuna kuyankha umboni, malingaliro a Hume akadali ofunikira monga chikumbutso chakuti zikhulupiriro—makamaka zachilendo—zimafunikira maziko olimba.
