Umlando Wokuthuthukiswa Kwethiyori Ye-Atomic
Ukufuna ukuqonda uhlobo oluyisisekelo lwento kube yindawo ebalulekile yophenyo lwesayensi iminyaka eyizinkulungwane. Ukuthuthukiswa kwethiyori yama-athomu kumelela uhambo oluya emlandweni wemicabango yabantu, ukutholakala kwesayensi, kanye nentuthuko yezobuchwepheshe. Lesi sihloko sichaza izigaba zomlando zethiyori yama-athomu, kusukela ekucabangeni kwefilosofi yasendulo kuya kuma-quantum mechanics anamuhla.
1. Iziqalo Zefilosofi Yasendulo
Umqondo we-athomu uqala emuva eGrisi lasendulo, cishe ngo-400 BCE. Kwakuyisazi sefilosofi uDemocritus, kanye nomeluleki wakhe uLeucippus, owaqala ukuphakamisa ukuthi izinto zakhiwe yizinhlayiya ezingahlukaniseki ezibizwa ngokuthi ama-athomu (kusukela kwelesiGriki elithi “atomos,” okusho ukuthi azinqunywa). UDemocritus wacabanga ukuthi ama-athomu angunaphakade, awabhubhi, futhi ahluka ngesimo nangobukhulu kuphela. Naphezu kobuhlakani bawo, le nkolelo-mbono yokuqala ye-athomu yayintula ubufakazi obubonakalayo futhi yayisekelwe kakhulu kwifilosofi.
Ngokuphambene nalokho, u-Aristotle, omunye wezazi zefilosofi ezinethonya kakhulu ngaleso sikhathi, wenqaba umbono wama-athomu. Wayekholelwa ukuthi yonke into yayakhiwe yizinto ezine: umhlaba, amanzi, umoya, nomlilo, futhi wayekholelwa ukuthi lezi zinto zihlangana ngezilinganiso ezahlukene ukuze zakhe zonke izinto. Umbono ka-Aristotle wabusa ukucabanga kwesayensi cishe iminyaka eyizinkulungwane ezimbili, wavimba intuthuko yenkolelo-mbono yama-athomu.
2. I-Renaissance kanye Nesikhathi Sokuqala Sesimanje
Ukungami kahle kwemfundiso ye-athomu kwaqhubeka phakathi neNkathi Ephakathi. Kodwa-ke, isikhathi se-Renaissance (ekhulwini le-14 kuya kwele-17) saletha isithakazelo esisha kwisayensi ye-empiric kanye nokufunda ngemvelo. Ngo-1620, indlela kaSir Francis Bacon yokucwaninga ngesayensi yabeka isisekelo sokuhlola kwesikhathi esizayo, yize yena ngokwakhe engagxilanga emfundisweni ye-athomu.
Ngawo-1660, uRobert Boyle wenza ucwaningo olwaphikisa inkolelo-mbono ka-Aristotle yezinto ezine futhi lwasikisela ukuthi izinto zazakhiwe ngama-corpuscle (izinhlayiya ezincane). Umsebenzi kaBoyle wabonisa ukuthi izinto ezahlukene zingahlukaniswa zibe izinto ezilula, okuzovula indlela yekhemistri yanamuhla.
3. Ikhulu le-18: Ukukhanyiselwa kanye neKhemistri Yokuqala
Ikhulu le-18 labona intuthuko ebalulekile ekufundweni kwamagesi kanye nemithetho elawula ukusabela kwamakhemikhali. U-Antoine Lavoisier, ovame ukubizwa ngokuthi "uyise wekhemistri yesimanje," wasungula ukulondolozwa kobuningi ekuphenduleni kwamakhemikhali. Lesi simiso sasisho ukuthi izinto zakhiwe izakhi zokwakha eziyisisekelo ezingadalwanga noma ezibhujiswe kodwa ezihlelwa kabusha ngesikhathi sezinqubo zamakhemikhali.
Esebenzisa umsebenzi kaLavoisier, kwavela omunye umuntu obalulekile, uJohn Dalton, ekuqaleni kwekhulu le-19. UDalton wasungula inkolelo-mbono yokuqala yesimanje ye-athomu ngo-1803. Waphakamisa ukuthi izakhi zakhiwe yizinhlayiya ezincane, ezingahlukaniseki ezibizwa ngama-athomu, ngayinye inesisindo esihlukile. Inkolelo-mbono kaDalton yachaza ukuthi kungani izakhi zihlangana ngezilinganiso ezihleliwe futhi yanikeza indlela yokulinganisa izakhi, yaqinisa isisekelo sentuthuko yesikhathi esizayo kwezekhemistri kanye nenkolelo-mbono ye-athomu.
4. Ekupheleni kwekhulu le-19: Ukutholakala kwezinhlayiya ze-Subatomic
Ingxenye yokugcina yekhulu le-19 yaphawula ukuqala kokutholwa okwaphonsela inselelo umqondo wama-athomu angahlukaniseki. Ngo-1897, uJJ Thomson wathola i-electron ngomsebenzi wakhe ngemisebe ye-cathode. UThomson waphakamisa ukuthi ama-athomu awabonakali kodwa kunalokho akhiwe yizinhlayiya ezincane, ezine-negative charge ezifakwe ku-matrix ene-positive charge. Le modeli ye-"plum pudding" yasikisela ukuthi ama-electron ahlakazekile kuyo yonke "isobho" eline-positive charge.
Naphezu kwendlela yayo entsha, imodeli kaThomson yabhekana nezinselele. Ngo-1909, u-Ernest Rutherford, owayengumfundi kaThomson, wenza ucwaningo oludumile lwe-gold foil. Waphawula ukuthi izinhlayiya ze-alpha zingadlula ku-foil kodwa ezinye zaziphambuka ngama-engeli amakhulu. URutherford waphetha ngokuthi ama-athomu kumele abe ne-nucleus exinene, eshajeke kahle ezungezwe isikhala esingenalutho kakhulu. Le modeli yenuzi ye-athomu yashintsha kakhulu ukuqonda kwesakhiwo se-athomu.
5. Ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20: I-Quantum Mechanics
Ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20 kwakuyisikhathi soguquko lwenkolelo-mbono ye-athomu, eqhutshwa yi-quantum mechanics. Ngo-1913, uNiels Bohr wahlanganisa imodeli yenuzi kaRutherford nezimiso ze-quantum ukuze aphakamise ukuthi ama-electron ahlala ezindaweni ezithile ezizungeze i-nucleus, ngamandla aqinile. Le modeli yachaza ama-spectra okukhishwa kwama-athomu futhi yaphawula ukuqala kwenkolelo-mbono ye-quantum atomic.
Intuthuko eyengeziwe yavela ku-Erwin Schrödinger noWerner Heisenberg ngawo-1920. USchrödinger wasungula ama-wave mechanics, echaza ama-electron njengemisebenzi yamagagasi kunokuba abe yizinhlayiya ezizungezayo. UHeisenberg wethula isimiso sokungaqiniseki, esasithi isikhundla kanye nomfutho we-electron akunakulinganiswa ngesikhathi esisodwa ngokunemba. Le mibono yakha isisekelo se-quantum mechanics, yashintsha ngokuyisisekelo ukuqonda ukuziphatha kwe-athomu kanye nesakhiwo.
6. Phakathi nekhulu lama-20: Ukutholakala kwe-Neutron kanye nokuthuthuka kwe-Nuclear Physics
Ukutholakala kwe-neutron nguJames Chadwick ngo-1932 kwenezela olunye ungqimba kumbono we-athomu. Ama-neutron, kanye nama-proton, akha i-nucleus ye-athomu, ezungezwe yifu lama-electron. Ukuqonda isakhiwo se-athomu kwaba nomqondo obanzi, okwenza kube lula ukuthuthukiswa kwe-physics yenuzi kanye nokutadisha ukusabela kwenuzi.
Maphakathi nekhulu lama-20 kwaphinde kwavela izikhali zenuzi zokuqala kanye nemishini yokusabela yenuzi. Umsebenzi wososayensi abanjengo-Enrico Fermi noRobert Oppenheimer ngesikhathi seManhattan Project wabonisa amandla amakhulu asetshenziswa ngaphakathi kwe-nucleus ye-athomu, ebonisa kokubili amandla kanye nengozi yamandla e-athomu.
7. Intuthuko Yanamuhla kanye Nethiyori Yensimu Ye-Quantum
Ithiyori ye-athomu iyaqhubeka nokukhula ngentuthuko yethiyori yensimu ye-quantum kanye ne-physics yezinhlayiya. Ososayensi bathole izinhlayiya eziningi ze-subatomic, njenge-quarks kanye ne-gluons, ezakha ama-proton nama-neutron. I-Standard Model ye-physics yezinhlayiya ichaza lezi zinhlayiya eziyisisekelo kanye nokusebenzisana kwazo, inikeza uhlaka oluphelele lokuqonda izinto ezikalini ezincane kakhulu.
Emashumini eminyaka amuva nje, amasu okuhlola afana nama-particle accelerator kanye ne-spectroscopy ethuthukisiwe acacise kabanzi isakhiwo kanye nokuziphatha kwama-athomu. Ukutholakala kwe-Higgs boson ngo-2012, i-particle ephethe ukunikeza ezinye izinhlayiya isisindo, kwaqinisekisa izici ezibalulekile ze-Standard Model futhi kwavula izindlela ezintsha zokuhlola.
Isiphetho
Umlando wethiyori yama-athomu uwubufakazi bokulangazelela kwabantu kanye nokuphishekela ulwazi okungapheli. Kusukela kufilosofi yamaGreki yasendulo kuya ku-quantum mechanics yanamuhla, intuthuko ngayinye yakhelwe phezu kokuqonda kwezizukulwane zangaphambilini. Namuhla, ithiyori yama-athomu isalokhu iyinsimu eguquguqukayo, ehlala ibunjwa yizinto ezintsha ezitholakele kanye nobuchwepheshe, njengoba ososayensi bezama ukuvula izimfihlo ezijulile zendawo yonke. Lolu hambo oluqhubekayo lugcizelela isimo esijulile nesihlala sishintsha sokuqonda kwethu izinto kanye nezimiso eziyisisekelo ezizibusayo.
