Chisinthiko cha ku France ndi Chizindikiro cha Guillotine
Kusintha kwa dziko la France (1789–1799) nthawi zambiri kumakumbukiridwa ngati chimodzi mwa zinthu zofunika kwambiri m'mbiri yamakono. Sikunali kusintha kwa boma kuchokera ku ufumu weniweni kupita ku boma lomwe linkanena kuti limadalira ulamuliro wa anthu ambiri, komanso chivomerezi cha chikhalidwe, zachuma, ndi chikhalidwe chomwe chinagwedeza Europe. Kuyambira mawu akuti "Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité" mpaka kugwetsedwa kwa Mfumu Louis XVI, kusinthaku kunali ndi chiyembekezo ndi mantha, malingaliro abwino komanso chiwawa. Pakati pa chipwirikitichi, chida chodula mitu—chida chodziwika bwino cha nthawi ya Zigawenga—sichinangowonekera ngati chida chopha anthu koma monga chizindikiro chodzaza ndi tanthauzo. Chinasonyeza chikhumbo cha "chilungamo" choganiza bwino komanso chofanana, komanso chimasonyeza kuchotsedwa kwa ndale ndi mphamvu za boma pa nzika zake.
Chiyambi: Vuto Lomwe Linayambitsa Kusintha kwa Dziko
Kusintha kwa dziko la France kunayamba chifukwa cha vuto lomwe linakula kwa nthawi yayitali. Pazachuma, dzikolo linali ndi ngongole zambiri chifukwa cha nkhondo—kuphatikizapo thandizo la France ku Kusintha kwa dziko la America—pomwe njira yokhomera msonkho inali yosalungama. Akuluakulu ndi atsogoleri achipembedzo (Malo Oyamba ndi Achiwiri) anali ndi maudindo ambiri, pomwe udindo wokhometsa msonkho unali waukulu kwambiri kwa anthu wamba (Malo Oyamba), kuyambira abizinesi akumatauni mpaka alimi.
Pa chikhalidwe cha anthu, kusalingana kwa maudindo kunapangitsa kuti anthu azikhumudwa kwambiri. Atsogoleri a boma—ophunzira komanso olemera pang'ono—anapeza kuti zitseko za mphamvu zinatsekedwa ndi mwayi wobadwa, osati luso. M'midzi, alimi ankakumana ndi mitengo yokwera ya mkate, zokolola zochepa, ndi maudindo a mafumu omwe ankaonedwa ngati opondereza. Mwanzeru, malingaliro a Chidziwitso anafalikira: Rousseau, Voltaire, ndi Montesquieu analimbikitsa ndemanga za absolutism ndipo analimbikitsa malingaliro a mgwirizano wa anthu, ufulu wa anthu, ndi kulekanitsa mphamvu.
Mavuto anakula pamene Louis XVI anaitanitsa Msonkhano Waukulu mu 1789 kuti athetse vuto la zachuma. Komabe, msonkhano uwu unatsegula malo atsopano andale: Bungwe lachitatu linadzitcha kuti Nyumba Yamalamulo Yadziko Lonse. Kugwa kwa Bastille pa Julayi 14, 1789, kunasonyeza kubuka kwa mantha a anthu ambiri komanso kugwa kwa ulamuliro wakale. Kuyambira pamenepo, kusinthaku kunalowa m'magawo ovuta kwambiri, makamaka pamene France inkakumana ndi chiwopsezo cha nkhondo kuchokera kunja ndi kusintha kotsutsana kuchokera mkati.
Kuchokera ku Malingaliro Abwino Kupita ku Chiwawa Chandale
Poyamba, kusinthaku kunabweretsa pulogalamu yokonzanso zinthu: Chilengezo cha Ufulu wa Munthu ndi wa Nzika (Declaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen) chinatsimikizira ufulu, kufanana pamaso pa lamulo, ndi ulamuliro wa anthu ambiri. Mapangidwe a boma anathetsedwa, ufulu wa anthu apamwamba unatsutsidwa, ndipo kayendetsedwe ka boma kanayamba kusinthidwa.
Koma zinthu zinaipiraipira mofulumira. Dziko la France linayamba kumenyana ndi mgwirizano wa mafumu aku Europe, poopa kufalikira kwa kusintha kwa dziko. M'dzikolo, mkangano unabuka pakati pa magulu andale: a Girondins odziletsa komanso a Jacobins okonda kusintha zinthu. Mantha a chiwembu, kubisala, kuwononga, ndi kuukira boma analimbitsa lingaliro la "zadzidzidzi za kusintha kwa dziko" - lingaliro lakuti njira zokhwima kwambiri zinali zoyenera kuti apulumutse kusinthaku.
Gawo lodziwika bwino kwambiri linali la Ulamuliro wa Zigawenga (1793–1794), pamene Komiti Yoona za Chitetezo cha Anthu (makamaka motsogozedwa ndi Robespierre) inakhazikitsa mphamvu pakati pa anthu ndipo inakhazikitsa njira zokhwima motsutsana ndi “adani a kusinthaku.” Pa nthawi imeneyi, kudula mutu kunakhala njira yaikulu yophera anthu. Anthu zikwizikwi—anthu olemekezeka, atsogoleri achipembedzo, andale, komanso nzika wamba—anaphedwa, nthawi zambiri pansi pa milandu yofulumira komanso milandu yocheperako.
Guillotine: Chiyambi ndi Zonena za "Anthu"
Chochititsa chidwi n'chakuti, guillotine poyamba inkalimbikitsidwa ngati njira yatsopano "yachifundo". Chisinthiko chisanachitike, mitundu ya kuphedwa inali yosiyanasiyana ndipo nthawi zambiri inali yopweteka: kupachikidwa, kutenthedwa, kudula mutu ndi lupanga kapena nkhwangwa (zomwe zikanatha kulephera ngati wophayo anali wosaphunzira). Kusiyana kwa magulu a anthu kunakhudzanso momwe imfa inkachitikira: anthu olemekezeka anali ndi mwayi wodulidwa mitu, pomwe anthu wamba nthawi zambiri ankalandira zilango zomwe zimaonedwa kuti ndi zankhanza kwambiri.
Chovala cha guillotine—chomwe chimagwirizana ndi dokotala Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, ngakhale kuti kapangidwe kake kanapangidwa ndi ena—chinapangidwa kuti chikhale chida chachangu komanso "chofanana". Lingaliro lake loyambira: imfa siyenera kukhala chiwonetsero cha kuzunza, ndipo lamulo liyenera kuchitira aliyense mofanana. Mkati mwa kusintha komwe kunalimbikitsa kufanana, makina amodzi kwa onse ankawoneka ngati akuyimira mfundo ya kufanana pamaso pa lamulo.
Motero, kuyambira pachiyambi, guillotine inali ndi chododometsa: chinali chizindikiro cha kupita patsogolo "kwanzeru" mu dongosolo la chilango komanso chida chomwe pambuyo pake chidzakhala chizindikiro cha chiwawa cha boma.
Chizindikiro cha Guillotine: Kufanana, Kulingalira, ndi Dziko Lamakono
Chovala cha guillotine sichingokhala makina okha; ndi chilankhulo chowoneka cha kusintha kwa zinthu. Chili ndi zizindikiro zingapo.
1) Kufanana kozizira ndi kwamakina
Chida chodulira anthu pansi pa guillotine chinkaonedwa ngati “wopha anthu mwachilungamo” chifukwa chinkasankha anthu omwe ali paudindo wawo. Ngakhale mafumu—Louis XVI mu Januwale 1793 ndi Marie Antoinette mu Okutobala 1793—anagwa pansi pa mpeni wake. Izi zinatsimikizira uthenga wa kusinthaku: ulamuliro wakale unali kugwa, ulamuliro wa anthu apamwamba sunalinso wosagonjetseka.
Koma "kufanana" kumeneku kumakhala kochitika mwamakina komanso kozizira. Pamene mfundo zandale zikukhazikitsidwa kudzera mu makina, anthu amangogwiritsidwa ntchito ngati zinthu zongochitika mwamwambo. Izi zikubweretsa kutsutsa kwa makhalidwe abwino: kodi kufanana pamaso pa lamulo ndikokwanira pamene lamulo lenilenilo likulamulidwa ndi mantha?
2) Kufotokozera za chiwawa
Kusinthaku kunabweretsa lingaliro lakuti anthu akhoza kusinthidwa mwanzeru. Kudula guillotine kunali kuwonjezera pa mfundo imeneyo: imfa inkalamulidwa, kusinthidwa, komanso kufulumizitsidwa. Chiwawa chinakhala gawo la kayendetsedwe ka boma, osati kungokwiya ndi maganizo chabe. Pachifukwa ichi, kudula guillotine kunkaimira mdima wamakono: kuthekera kwa boma kuyendetsa bwino miyoyo ndi imfa za nzika zake.
3) Zisudzo zandale ndi kuopseza anthu
Kupha anthu kunkachitika m'malo opezeka anthu ambiri, anthu ambiri akuona. Kudula anthu m'manja mwa munthu wina kunathandiza kwambiri: aliyense amene anali ndi mphamvu ankadziwa yemwe anali "nzika" komanso yemwe anali "mdani." Kunafalitsa mantha komanso kunapangitsa kuti anthu ena aziganiza kuti "palibe kusintha kwa zinthu." Kwa ena, kuona munthu akuphedwa kunali ngati kutenga nawo mbali pa ndale; kwa ena, kunali chikumbutso chakuti kusagwirizana kungayambitse imfa.
4) Chizindikiro cha chiyero cha kusinthaku—ndi wodya ana ake
Mu mawu a Jacobin, mantha ankaonedwa ngati "chilungamo chofulumira komanso chankhanza" kuti asunge makhalidwe abwino a boma. Guillotine inakhala chizindikiro cha khama loyeretsa thupi la ndale kuchokera ku zinthu zomwe zimaonedwa kuti ndi zachinyengo. Koma kusinthaku kunali kodziwika bwino chifukwa cha "kudya ana ake": anthu ambiri osintha zinthu anadulidwa mitu, kuphatikizapo Robespierre mu Julayi 1794. Panthawiyi, guillotine inakhala chizindikiro cha kuzungulira kwa kusintha kwa zinthu: pamene mphamvu ikugwira ntchito chifukwa cha kukayikira, palibe amene amakhala wotetezeka kwenikweni.
Zotsatira za Chikhalidwe ndi Kukumbukira Pamodzi
Kupatula mbiri ya ndale, guillotine imapitilirabe m'malingaliro achikhalidwe. Imawonekera m'mapepala, makatuni, mabuku, ndi mafilimu pambuyo pake. Imasonyeza momwe kusinthaku kunamvetsetsedwera: ngati chigonjetso cha anthu, komanso ngati chenjezo la kuopsa kwa kutengeka maganizo ndi mphamvu zomwe zimavomerezedwa ndi "chifuniro chachikulu."
Kwa mibadwo ya pambuyo pa kusintha kwa zinthu, guillotine inakhala mtundu wa chidule cha Zigawenga. Zinayambitsa mafunso okhudza malire a kusintha kwa zinthu: kodi kulimbana kwa ufulu kumakhala liti mtundu watsopano wa kupondereza? Kodi chiwawa chingalungamitsidwe m'dzina la lingaliro labwino? Ndipo ndani amalamulira tanthauzo la "mdani wa anthu"?
Ku France komweko, guillotine ili ndi mbiri yakale yomwe imapitirira nthawi ya kusintha kwa dziko la France. Inagwiritsidwa ntchito m'makhothi mpaka m'zaka za m'ma 20, ndipo chilango chomaliza chinaperekedwa mu 1977 ndipo chilango cha imfa chinathetsedwa mu 1981. Izi zikulimbitsa chizindikiro chake: guillotine si chinthu chongopeka cha kusinthaku, koma ndi gawo la kusintha kwa boma lamakono ndi machitidwe ake azamalamulo.
Kutsiliza: Guillotine ngati Galasi la Zodabwitsa za Revolution
Kusintha kwa dziko la France kunasiya dziko lapansi ndi cholowa chachikulu: lingaliro la ufulu wa anthu, dziko lamakono, ndi kukakamiza ndale zoyimira anthu ambiri. Koma kunawonetsanso kufooka kwa malingaliro pakati pa nkhondo, mavuto azachuma, ndi mikangano yamkati. Chovala cha guillotine chikufotokoza momveka bwino izi. Kumbali imodzi, chinachokera ku zikhumbo za anthu ndi kufanana; kumbali ina, chinakhala chizindikiro cha chiwawa chokhazikitsidwa, mantha ambiri, ndi mphamvu yomwe imachotsa otsutsa pansi pa mawonekedwe a kukoma mtima.
Kumvetsetsa chizindikiro cha guillotine ndiko kumvetsetsa kusamvana kosatha pakati pa malingaliro ndi njira zowakwaniritsira. Kumatikumbutsa kuti kusintha sikungokhudza kugwetsa ankhanza akale, komanso kuletsa kubadwa kwa atsopano—ngakhale pamene ankhanza amenewo amalankhula m'dzina la anthu ndi ufulu.
