Ukuvela Kwentando Yeningi Yasendulo YamaGreki
Intando yeningi ivame ukubizwa ngokuthi enye yefa elikhulu kakhulu laseGrisi lasendulo ezweni lanamuhla. Kodwa-ke, intando yeningi yasendulo yamaGreki kwakungeyona uhlelo olulungisiwe, njengoba abaningi becabanga. Yavela ngezingxabano zomphakathi, ushintsho lwezomnotho, ukuguqulwa kwezomthetho, kanye nomzabalazo wokuthi ubani okufanele abuse nokuthi amandla kufanele ahlolwe kanjani. Ukuvela kwentando yeningi eGrisi lasendulo—ikakhulukazi e-Athene—kumele inqubo ende kusukela ekubuseni kwabaphezulu kuya ekuhlanganyeleni kwezakhamuzi (nakuba kusalinganiselwe), kuyilapho futhi kwembula impikiswano: “uhulumeni wabantu” othembele ebugqilini futhi wakhipha amaqembu amaningi ngaphandle.
Indawo Ye-Polis: Indawo Evundile Yokuhlola Kwezepolitiki
Intando yeningi yamaGreki ayizange ivele endaweni engenamuntu, kodwa yavela ngaphakathi komongo we-polis—idolobha-umbuso elalisebenza njengeyunithi yezepolitiki eyinhloko yaseGrisi. I-polis ngayinye yayinezikhungo, imithetho, namasiko ahlukene. Isibonelo, iSparta yaziwa kangcono njenge-oligarchy yezempi, kanti i-Athene yaba isikhungo esidumile kakhulu sokuhlola intando yeningi. Indawo yezintaba yaseGrisi yakhuthaza ukwakheka kwemiphakathi yezepolitiki ezimele, okuvumela imibono eyahlukahlukene ngohulumeni ukuba ithuthuke.
Ekuqaleni, izikhulu eziningi zazibuswa amakhosi noma izikhulu. Udumo namandla kwakusemindenini ehloniphekile eyayilawula izwe. Kodwa-ke, izinguquko zomnotho—ukuhweba okukhula, ukuvela kwesigaba esiphakathi sabanikazi bomhlaba abancane, kanye nendima yezempi yamasosha ahamba ngezinyawo (ama-hoplite) eyayidinga ubumbano lwezakhamuzi—kwadala ingcindezi yokuvimbela ukwenziwa kwezinqumo ukuthi kungalawulwa yinani elincane labantu.
Kusukela Ebukhulwini Kuya Enkingeni Yomphakathi: Imbewu Yentando Yeningi
I-Athene ngekhulu lesi-7 BC yabhekana nokungezwani okukhulu kwezenhlalo. Abalimi abaningi abancane babenezikweletu ezikhulwini. Esimisweni esinzima, ukwehluleka ukukhokha izikweletu kwakungabangela ubugqila bezikweletu. Lokhu kungalingani kwaholela ekungqubuzaneni phakathi kwezicukuthwane nezakhamuzi ezivamile. Ukuze kuncishiswe le nkinga, i-Athene yaqala ukushintsha ezombusazwe zayo isuke "emasikweni aphezulu" iye emithethweni ebhaliwe kanye nezikhungo ezivulekile.
Isinyathelo sokuqala esibalulekile kwaba ukubhalwa komthetho nguDraco (Drakon) cishe ngo-621 BC. Imithetho kaDraco yayidume ngokuba nolaka—kangangokuthi igama elithi “drakonian” lisekhona nanamuhla. Kodwa-ke, ukubaluleka kwayo kwakungebona nje unya lwabo, kodwa kunalokho iqiniso lokuthi umthetho waqala ukulinganiswa, okwawushiya uncike ngokuphelele ezinqumweni ezingahleliwe zabantu abadumile. Umphakathi waqala ukwamukela umqondo wokuthi imithetho “ayinabo ubuntu,” isisekelo esibalulekile sikahulumeni ophendulayo.
Izinguquko ZikaSolon: Ukuyekethisa Okukhulu Okwashintsha Indlela
Umuntu olandelayo obalulekile kwakunguSolon (cishe ngo-594/593 BC). USolon wayenomsebenzi wokubhekana nenkinga yezikweletu kanye nezingxabano zomphakathi. Izinguquko zakhe zivame ukubhekwa njengesinyathelo esikhulu esiya entandweni yeningi, yize zazingasakwazi "ukubuswa ngabantu" ngomqondo obanzi.
USolon wasebenzisa i-seisachtheia—ukususwa komthwalo wezikweletu owawubambile izakhamuzi kanye nokuvinjelwa kobugqila bezikweletu. Wahlela kabusha ukubamba iqhaza kwezepolitiki ngokusekelwe ekilasini, hhayi kuphela ezicukuthwaneni. Lokhu kwavula ukufinyelela ehhovisi likahulumeni kubantu abangebona abasebukhosini abanezindlela ezanele zemali.
Ngakolunye uhlangothi, uSolon waqhubeka nendima yabantu abaphezulu. Izikhundla eziphakeme kakhulu zazivame ukuthathwa ngabacebile, kodwa izakhamuzi ezisezingeni eliphansi zanikezwa izikhundla emhlanganweni odumile nasezinkantolo. Impumelelo ebalulekile kaSolon kwaba ukushintsha kwesimiso: ukuba semthethweni kwezepolitiki kwakungasanqunywa kuphela ngozalo, kodwa kunalokho ngomnikelo kanye nesimo sesakhamuzi emphakathini.
Isikhathi Sobushiqela: Indlela Eya Entandweni Yeningi
Ngemva kukaSolon, ingxabano yezombusazwe yayingakapheli. I-Athene yabe isibhekana nenkathi yobushiqela ngaphansi kukaPeisistratus namadodana akhe (ngekhulu lesi-6 BC). Esimweni sasendulo samaGreki, igama elithi “umashiqela” lalisho njalo umashiqela ononya njengasesikhathini sanamuhla; kwakuvame ukuba umbusi oyedwa owayethatha amandla phakathi kwezimpi zezikhulu.
UPeisistratos wagcina izikhungo ezindala, kodwa waqinisa ukuzinza, wakhuthaza intuthuko, futhi wanikeza amathuba ezomnotho kumaqembu angaphandle kwesizwe esicebile. Nakuba ubudlova babuphikisana nezimiso zentando yeningi, lesi sikhathi sabuthakathaza ngendlela exakile ukubusa kwemindeni yasendulo eyayihloniphekile futhi savula indlela yokwakhiwa kabusha kwezepolitiki okwalandela.
Izinguquko zikaCleisthenes: Isisekelo sentando yeningi yase-Athene
Ushintsho olukhulu lwenzeka ngo-508/507 BC ngezinguquko zikaCleisthenes. Izazi-mlando eziningi zibiza uCleisthenes ngokuthi “uyise wentando yeningi yase-Athene” ngoba wasungula izinhlaka ezazivumela ukuba izakhamuzi zibambe iqhaza kabanzi futhi zanciphisa ithonya lezikhulu.
UCleisthenes waguqula ukuhlukaniswa kwezakhamuzi okusekelwe ebuhlotsheni kwaba ukuhlukaniswa kwezindawo: ama-demes (amayunithi endawo) kanye nezizwe zahlelwa kabusha. Ngokuhlanganisa izindawo ezisogwini, ezingaphakathi nezwe, kanye nezindawo zasemadolobheni zibe yisizwe esisodwa, wavimbela noma yiliphi iqembu noma umndeni wendawo ethile ukuthi ungabusi amandla. Waqinisa noMkhandlu wama-500 (amaBoule), amalungu awo ayethathwe kuma-demes ahlukahlukene, ngaleyo ndlela eqinisekisa ukumelwa okulinganayo.
Enye indlela eyaziwayo ukucwasa, inqubo esetshenziswa ukususa abantu bezombusazwe ngokuvota ukuze bangabi namandla kakhulu. Nakuba ingasetshenziswa kabi, ukucwasa kubonisa ukuqaphela ukuthi intando yeningi idinga amathuluzi okunciphisa ukugxilisa amandla.
Isiqongo Sentando Yeningi: Isikhathi SikaPericles Nokuhlanganyela Kwezakhamuzi
Intando yeningi yase-Athene yafinyelela umvuthwandaba wayo ngekhulu lesi-5 BC, ikakhulukazi ngesikhathi sokubusa kukaPericles. Phakathi nalesi sikhathi, i-Assembly (Ekklesia)—umhlangano wabantu abadala besilisa—yaba yisikhungo sokwenza izinqumo ezindabeni zempi, ukuthula, inqubomgomo yezangaphandle, kanye nomthetho. Izinkantolo zabantu (Dikasteria) nazo zadlala indima enkulu ekuphoqeleleni umthetho kanye nokwengamela izikhulu.
Ukuqamba okusha okuvame ukuhlotshaniswa nalesi sikhathi ukukhokhelwa kwenkonzo yomphakathi (isb., inkonzo yamajaji). Lesi sikhuthazo senza izakhamuzi eziswele ukuba zihlanganyele, hhayi nje labo abacebile nesikhathi samahhala. Lokhu kwandisa isisekelo sezepolitiki, yize ukubamba iqhaza kwahlala kunqunyelwe esigabeni esincane "sezakhamuzi."
Kodwa-ke, intando yeningi yase-Athene nayo yabhekana nokugxekwa okukhulu. Izazi zefilosofi ezifana noPlato zazibheka intando yeningi njengesengozini yobandlululo—abaholi ababelawula izixuku. UThucydides uchaze indlela umbono womphakathi ongashintsha ngayo ngokushesha esimweni sempi. Lokhu kugxekwa kwaba yingxenye yempikiswano engapheli mayelana nobuthakathaka bezinhlelo zentando yeningi.
Imingcele Yentando Yeningi YamaGreki: Bangobani “Abantu”?
Kubalulekile ukuqonda ukuthi intando yeningi yase-Athene yayingahlanganisi bonke izakhamuzi. Abesifazane, izigqila, kanye nabokufika (ama-metics) babengenawo amalungelo ezepolitiki. Kulinganiselwa ukuthi ingxenye encane kuphela yabantu—izakhamuzi zesilisa ezindala—ezazingabamba iqhaza ngqo. Ngokumangalisayo, isikhathi sokuphumula esasivumela ukubamba iqhaza kwezepolitiki sasivame ukusekelwa yizisebenzi zezigqila. Ngamanye amazwi, intando yeningi yase-Athene yayisekelwe esakhiweni senhlalo esinobungcweti.
Noma kunjalo, ngaphakathi kwemingcele yayo, intando yeningi yase-Athene yahlala inguguquko ngoba yabeka izinqumo zezombusazwe ezandleni zemihlangano yezakhamuzi, hhayi amakhosi noma izicukuthwane. Yaphinde yaveza isiko lokukhuluma, ingxoxo yomphakathi, kanye nomthwalo wemfanelo wezakhamuzi ezindabeni ezivamile.
Ukwehla kanye Nefa
Ukwehla kwentando yeningi yase-Athene akuzange kusheshe. IMpi yasePeloponnesian (431–404 BC) yenza i-Athene yaba buthaka ngokwezomnotho nangokwezepolitiki. Ngemva kokunqotshwa kwayo yiSparta, i-Athene yabhekana nemibuso yamaqembu anjenge-"Thirty Tyrants" ngaphambi kokuba intando yeningi ibuyiselwe. Kodwa-ke, ukungazinzi kanye nezingcindezi zangaphandle kwaqhubeka. Ekugcineni, ukwanda kweMakedoniya ngaphansi kukaPhilip II no-Alexander Omkhulu kwaqeda ukuzimela kwama-poleis amaningi, okuhlanganisa nokuhlolwa kwentando yeningi ngesimo sayo sakudala.
Noma kunjalo, ifa lentando yeningi yamaGreki yasendulo lihlala njalo ngemibono nezikhungo zayo: umqondo wokuba yisakhamuzi, ukubamba iqhaza komphakathi, ukubusa komthetho, ukushintshana kwezikhundla, kanye nokuhlola amandla. Intando yeningi yanamuhla ayilingisi i-Athene ngokuqondile—ngokuvamile iyamelela, iqinisekisa amalungelo omhlaba wonke, futhi yenqaba ubugqila—kodwa amagama amaningi nemibuzo yayo eyisisekelo ivela kokuhlangenwe nakho kwamaGreki: Kusho ukuthini ukuthi “abantu”? Ubushiqela bungavinjelwa kanjani? Izakhamuzi kufanele zihileleke ngqo ngezinga elingakanani?
I-Penutup
Ukuvela kwentando yeningi yasendulo yamaGreki kuyindaba yokushintsha kancane kancane: kusukela ebukhosini kuya emthethweni obhaliwe, kusukela enkingeni yezikweletu kuya ekuguqulweni, kusukela ekucindezelweni kuya ekuhleleni kabusha kwezikhungo, kanye nokubusa okuphezulu kuya ekubambeni izakhamuzi okubanzi—nakuba kusese okukhethekile. Intando yeningi yase-Athene ibonisa ukuthi intando yeningi akuyona nje uhlelo, kodwa inqubo yezenhlalo nezepolitiki ebuthakathaka, egcwele izingxabano edinga izindlela zokulinganisela amandla. Naphezu kokulinganiselwa kwayo, iGrisi yasendulo yaletha umbono onesibindi: wokuthi izakhamuzi, ngempikiswano kanye nokwenza izinqumo ezihlangene, zingaba umthombo wokufaneleka kwezepolitiki. Lo mbono uyaqhubeka futhi uyaqhubeka kuze kube namuhla.
