Izinto Ezivubukulwa Ngaphambi Komlando e-Indonesia
I-Indonesia iyisifunda esibalulekile sokuqonda umlando wabantu wangaphambi komlando eNingizimu-mpumalanga ye-Asia, futhi empeleni emhlabeni. Indawo yayo phakathi kwe-Asia ne-Australia, kanye nezinkulungwane zeziqhingi zayo ezinezindawo ezahlukahlukene—izintaba, i-karst, amabhishi, namahlathi ashisayo—yenza kube “ilabhorethri yemvelo” yocwaningo lwezinto zakudala. Ngokusebenzisa izinto zakudala zasendulo, abacwaningi bafuna ukwakha kabusha impilo yabantu ngaphambi kokubhala: indlela abafuduka ngayo, abasinda ngayo, abathuthukisa ngayo ubuchwepheshe, abakha ukwethembana, futhi abasebenzisana ngayo nendawo abahlala kuyo. Lobu bufakazi bufika ngesimo sezinsalela zabantu, amathuluzi amatshe, izinsalela zokudla, imidwebo yemihume, kanye nezakhiwo ezinkulu ezisakazeke kuzo zonke iziqhingi.
Ububanzi kanye nezindlela zokuvubukula kwasendulo
Isayensi yezinto zakudala zangaphambi komlando ihlola izikhathi zokuqala zokuphila komuntu eziqhingini zase-Indonesia, kusukela ekufikeni kwama-hominin okuqala kuya ekuveleni kwemiphakathi eyayisazi ezolimo kanye nobuchwepheshe bensimbi. Ngenxa yokuthi azikho irekhodi elibhaliwe, izazi zezinto zakudala zithembele kudatha yezinto ezibonakalayo ezitholakala ngokuhlola kanye nokumba. Izingqimba zomhlabathi (stratigraphy) zisiza ekusunguleni ukulandelana kwezikhathi, kuyilapho kusetshenziswa amasu ahlukahlukene okubala ukuze kulinganiswe ubudala bezinto ezitholakele. Ukuqopha i-Radiocarbon (C-14) kuvame ukusetshenziselwa izinsalela zezinto eziphilayo ezifana namalahle noma amathambo, kanti ezinye izindlela, njengokuqopha i-luminescence (OSL/TL), ziwusizo ezintweni ezidakamizweni kanye nezinto ezithile zobuciko. Ukuhlaziywa kwezimpawu zokuguguleka kumathuluzi amatshe, izifundo zezilwane, izifundo zempova, kanye nama-isotope nakho kusiza ukuqonda ukudla, ukuhamba, kanye nezinguquko zemvelo.
Izinsalela zabantu basendulo kanye nokubaluleka kwazo e-Indonesia
Igama lase-Indonesia liye lagqama ezingxoxweni zokuziphendukela kwemvelo kwabantu ngenxa yokutholakala kwe-"Java Man" (Homo erectus) eTrinil, eNgawi, ngasekupheleni kwekhulu le-19. Lokhu kutholakala kwavula isahluko esibalulekile ekusabalalisweni kwama-hominin ngaphandle kwe-Afrika. Izindawo eziseduze noMfula iBengiran Solo—njengeSangiran, iTrinil, iSambungmacan, neNgandong—zinikeza uhla olucebile kakhulu lwezinsalela zezinto zakudala nezinto zobuciko. ISangiran yaze yaqokwa njengeNdawo Yefa Lomhlaba ye-UNESCO ngenxa yeminikelo yayo ku-paleoanthropology.
Ngaphandle kwe-Homo erectus, i-Indonesia yaziwa nangokutholakala kwe-Homo floresiensis eLiang Bua, eFlores. Lolu hlobo, oluvame ukubizwa ngokuthi "i-hobbit" ngenxa yobukhulu balo obuncane, lubangele impikiswano ethakazelisayo mayelana nokwehlukahluka kokuziphendukela kwemvelo kwabantu kanye nokuncane kwesiqhingi. Lokhu okutholakele kubonisa ukuthi umlando wesintu kulezi ziqhingi awuwona owodwa, kodwa uyinkimbinkimbi, ohilela imiphakathi eyahlukahlukene ngezikhathi ezahlukene.
Inkathi Yamatshe: kusukela kumathuluzi alula kuya ekuhlukeni kwamasiko
Ngaphambi komlando, intuthuko yezobuchwepheshe ivame ukuhlukaniswa ngezigaba zeNkathi Yamatshe, yize imingcele ingahlali iqinile. Esigabeni sePaleolithic (Inkathi Yamatshe Endala), amathuluzi atholakala ngokuvamile aqukethe ama-chopper, izando, nama-flakes amatshe. Lawa mathuluzi ake ahlotshaniswa nesiko "lasePacitanian" eJava, yize ucwaningo lwanamuhla lugcizelela isidingo somongo oqinile we-stratigraphic ukuqinisekisa ubudala bawo kanye nobudlelwano bawo. Kwezinye izindawo, amathuluzi e-flake kanye nama-blade abonisa amakhono athuthukile, okubonisa indlela abantu abavumelana ngayo nezidingo zokuzingela nokuqoqa.
Uma kungena esigabeni seMesolithic (Middle Stone Age), ubufakazi bokuthi indawo yokuhlala iyahlukahluka kakhulu. Izindawo eziningana zibonisa ukuthi kukhona izindawo zokuhlala zasekhishini (kjokkenmoddinger) kanye nezindawo zokuhlala zasemihumeni (abris sous roche), ikakhulukazi ezindaweni zaseKarst ezitholakala eSumatra, eKalimantan, eSulawesi naseNusa Tenggara. Le mihume ivame ukuqukethe izingqimba zamasiko ezingashintshi: amathuluzi amancane amatshe (ama-microlith), izinsalela zezilwane, i-shellfish, kanye namalahle akudala.
Ngesikhathi seNeolithic (iNkathi Yamatshe Entsha), kwenzeka izinguquko ezinkulu: ukuvela kwezolimo, izindawo zokuhlala ezengeziwe, kanye nobuchwepheshe bokusebenza ngamatshe. Izimbazo zesikwele nezinde zaba yizici ezibalulekile kulo lonke elase-Indonesia, ezivame ukuhlotshaniswa nokufuduka nokusabalala kwezikhulumi zase-Austronesian. Izinto zobumba nazo zaqala ukusabalala kabanzi phakathi nalesi sikhathi, ziphawula izinguquko ezindleleni zokucubungula nokugcina ukudla.
Ubuciko bedwala kanye nezimpawu zasendulo
Esinye sezibonelo ezithakazelisa kakhulu ezivela emlandweni wangaphambi komlando wase-Indonesia ubuciko bamadwala. Esifundeni saseMaros-Pangkep karst eNingizimu yeSulawesi, kutholakale ama-stencil esandla nezithombe zezilwane ezifana ne-babirusa kanye ne-warty pig. Ubuciko bamadwala buyatholakala nase-East Kalimantan nakwezinye izifunda eziningana. Le midwebo ayiyona nje imisebenzi yobuhle, kodwa futhi inikeza izinkomba zezimpawu, ubunikazi beqembu, kanye nemikhuba yemikhosi. Ngokuhlaziywa kombala, umongo womhume, kanye nokuqopha isikhathi, abavubukuli bazama ukuqonda ukuthi imisebenzi yobuciko yadalwa nini nokuthi yayisho ukuthini kubadali bayo.
Ama-Megalith: amatshe amakhulu, inkumbulo ehlangene, kanye nemikhuba
Isiko le-megalithic—ukwakhiwa kwezakhiwo noma izikhumbuzo ngamatshe amakhulu—kwakuyisici esinamandla somlando wangaphambili wase-Indonesia, kwaze kwaqhubeka kuze kube sesikhathini somlando kwezinye izindawo. Ama-Dolmen, ama-menhir, ama-sarcophagi, amabhokisi amatshe, kanye namaphiramidi anezitebhisi atholakale eJava, eSumatra, eBali, eNusa Tenggara, eSulawesi, ikakhulukazi eNias naseSumba, asagcina amasiko e-megalithic ngaphakathi kwezimo zawo zamasiko.
Ukuba khona kwezakhiwo ze-megalithic kubonisa inhlangano yezenhlalo ekwazi ukuhlanganisa abasebenzi, kanye nesimiso sokukholelwa esigcizelela ukuhlonipha okhokho. Ukungcwatshwa ngezinto ezingcwatshwe ngethuna kubonisa imiqondo yesimo senhlalo kanye nenkolelo engaba khona ekuphileni kwangemva kokufa. Ama-megalith avame ukuqondwa njengezimpawu zendawo engcwele kanye "nezingobo zomlando" zenkumbulo yomphakathi ehlangene.
I-Metal Age kanye namanethiwekhi okushintshana
Njengoba ubuchwepheshe bensimbi buthuthuka, izimpilo zabantu base-Indonesia basendulo zashintsha kakhulu. Izinto zethusi ezifana ne-nekara (izigubhu zethusi) ezihlotshaniswa nesiko lamaDongson laseNingizimu-mpumalanga ye-Asia ziye zatholakala eziqhingini ezahlukene, kusukela eSumatra kuya eNusa Tenggara. Ukusatshalaliswa kwe-nekara nezinye izinto zobuciko zensimbi kusikisela amanethiwekhi amakhulu okushintshana olwandle, kanye namakhono obuchwepheshe athuthukile njengokukhipha i-wax elahlekile.
Isikhathi sensimbi asizange sithathe indawo yamathuluzi amatshe ngokuphelele; lawa amabili ayevame ukusetshenziswa eceleni. Kodwa-ke, insimbi yavula indlela yokukhiqizwa kwamathuluzi aqinile, izimpawu zodumo, kanye nezindlela zokushintsha kwezingxabano kanye nabasebenzi. Ukuhweba phakathi kweziqhingi kwaba negalelo ekukhuleni kwezikhungo zokuhlala kanye nobuchwepheshe bezandla.
Izinselele zocwaningo: isimo sezulu esishisayo kanye nokulahlekelwa komongo
Ucwaningo lwemivubukulo yangaphambi komlando e-Indonesia lubhekene nezinselele ezinkulu. Isimo sezulu esinomswakama sisheshisa isimo sezulu, ngakho-ke izinto eziphilayo ezifana nokhuni nendwangu azivami ukusinda. Ngaphezu kwalokho, imisebenzi yanamuhla—izimayini, ukwakha, ukuhlanzwa komhlaba, kanye nokumba okungekho emthethweni—kuvame ukulimaza izindawo futhi kususe umongo wazo we-stratigraphic. Umongo uyisihluthulelo: izinto zobuciko ezingenalo ulwazi mayelana nezendlalelo, indawo, kanye nokuxhumana azibalulekile kakhulu ekwakheni kabusha kwesayensi.
Ngakho-ke, isayensi yemivubukulo yanamuhla igcizelela ukubhalwa kwemibhalo okucophelelayo, ukubambisana kwemikhakha eyahlukene, kanye nokubandakanyeka komphakathi wendawo. Imfundo yomphakathi ibalulekile ukuqinisekisa ukuthi izinsalela zasendulo zibhekwa njengemithombo yolwazi kanye nobunikazi, hhayi nje njengezinto eziqoqwayo.
I-Penutup
Imivubukulo yangaphambi komlando e-Indonesia yembula indaba ende yokuzivumelanisa kwabantu neqoqo leziqhingi elinamandla. Kusukela ku-Homo erectus eJava, kuya ekuhlukeni kwama-hominin eFlores, kuya ekuthuthukisweni kwamathuluzi amatshe kanye nobumba, kuya kubuciko bamadwala obungokomfanekiso, kuya emasikweni amakhulu kanye nobuchwepheshe bokusebenza ngensimbi obuxhunywe kumanethiwekhi okuhweba—konke kubonisa ukuthi leli qoqo leziqhingi lase-Indonesia lalingeyona ingxenye yomlando wesintu, kodwa kunalokho kwakungenye yezigaba zalo eziyinhloko. Ukuvikela izindawo zasendulo kanye nokusekela ucwaningo kulondoloza ifasitela elibalulekile lokuqonda ukuthi sivelaphi, ukuthi abantu basinde kanjani, nokuthi isiko lachuma kanjani e-Indonesia.
