Maitiro Akananga eMapoka Anoshanda
Kusangana kwemakemikari ndiko kuri pakati pemakemikari, uye mapoka anoshanda ndiwo zvikamu zvemamorekuru zviri pakati pemabasa emakemikari. Boka rega rega rinoshanda rine reactivity yaro uye hunhu hwaro, zvichibvumira mhando dzakasiyana dzekushanduka kwemakemikari. Kunzwisisa maitiro chaiwo emapoka anoshanda ndicho chinhu chakakosha pakugadzirisa nekugadzira mamorekuru munzvimbo dzakasiyana-siyana, kubva kumishonga kusvika kune tekinoroji yezvinhu.
Mapoka Anoshanda: Tsanangudzo uye Kukosha
Boka rinoshanda iboka remaatomu ari mumorekuru rinoshanda sechikamu chekuchinja uye rinosarudza hunhu hwemakemikari emorekuru. Mienzaniso yakajairika yemapoka anoshanda inosanganisira hydroxyl (-OH), carbonyl (C=O), carboxyl (-COOH), amino (-NH2), uye ether (-COC). Boka rega rega rinoshanda rine hunhu hwekuchinja hunoita kuti maitiro chaiwo emakemikari aitike.
Maitiro Akananga eMapoka Anoshanda
1. Boka reHydroxyl (-OH)
Mapoka ehydroxyl aripo mualcohols nephenols, uye anoratidza maitiro akasiyana-siyana emakemikari.
Maitiro eOxidation
Alcohols dzinogona kuoxidized kuti dzigadzire maaldehydes, maketones, uye macarboxylic acids. Kuoxidation kwekutanga kwealcohols kunogadzira maaldehydes, ayo anozooxidized kuita macarboxylic acids. Alcohols dzechipiri dzinooxidized kuita maketones.
``
R-CH2OH + [O] → R-CHO + [O] → R-COOH
R-CHOH-R' + [O] → R-CO-R'
``
Kupera Mvura Mumuviri
Kushaya mvura mumuviri wealcohols kunogona kukonzera alkenes ne ethers. Kana paine acid yakasimba senge H2SO4, alcohols dzinopera simba mumuviri we intramolecular kuenda ku alkenes kana kupera simba mumuviri we intermolecular kuenda ku ethers.
``
R-CH2-CH2OH → R-CH=CH2 + H2O (kushaya mvura mumuviri)
2 R-OH → ROR + H2O (kushaya mvura mumuviri)
``
2. Boka reCarbonyl (C=O)
Mapoka eCarbonyl anowanikwa mualdehydes, ketones, uye carboxylic compounds. Maitiro avo anosanganisira kuwedzera, kuderedza, uye kuumbwa kwemvura.
Kuwedzera kweNucleophilic
Kabhoni iri muboka recarbonyl ine simba remagetsi uye inogona kurwiswa nenucleophile kuti igadzire doro.
``
R-CO-R' + NuH → RC(OH)(Nu)-R'
``
Kuderedza Maitiro
MaAldehydes nemaketone zvinogona kuderedzwa kuita maalcohols nekuderedza zvinhu zvakaita seNaBH4 kana LiAlH4.
``
R-CHO + 2[H] → R-CH2OH
R-CO-R' + 2[H] → R-CHOH-R'
``
Maitiro eAldol Condensation
Kusanganiswa kweAldol kunosanganisira mamorekuru maviri ealdehyde kana ketone anogadzira β-hydroxy aldehyde kana ketone uye anogona kupera mvura mumuviri kuti agadzire enone.
``
2 R-CHO → R-CH(OH)-CH(R)-CHO
R-CHOH-CH(R)-CHO → R-CH=CH(R)-CHO + H2O
``
3. Boka reCarboxyl (-COOH)
MaCarboxylic acids anoratidza maitiro akadai sekubvisa protonation, esterification, uye kuderedza.
Maitiro eDeprotonation
MaCarboxylic acids (R-COOH) anogona kurasikirwa nemaprotoni kuti agadzire macarboxylates (R-COO⁻).
``
R-COOH → R-COO⁻ + H⁺
``
Maitiro eEsterification
Macarbohydrate acids anoita zvakafanana nealcohols kuti agadzire maester nemvura muFischer esterification reaction.
``
R-COOH + R'OH → R-COO-R' + H2O
``
Kuderedza Maitiro
Maasidhi eCarboxylic anogona kuderedzwa kuita maalcohols uchishandisa zvinhu zvinoderedza simba zvakaita seLiAlH4.
``
R-COOH + 4[H] → R-CH2OH + H2O
``
4. Boka reAmino (-NH2)
Mapoka emaamino aripo mumaamine uye anoratidza alkylation, acylation, uye nitrosation reactions.
Maitiro eAlkylation uye Acylation
MaAmine anoumbwa nekusanganiswa kwealkyl halides neammonia kana maamine. MaAmine anogonawo kuita neacyl halides kana maanhydride kuti agadzire maamide.
``
RX + NH3 → R-NH2 + HX
R-NH2 + R'-COCl → R-NH-CO-R' + HCl
``
Maitiro eNitrosation
MaAmine epakutanga neachipiri anogona kuita nitrosation reactions ne nitrous acid kuti agadzire diazonium salts ye primary amines kana N-nitrose amines ye secondary amines.
``
R-NH2 + HONO → R-N2⁺ + H2O (munyu wediazonium)
R2NH + HONO → R2N-N=O + H2O (N-nitroso amine)
``
5. Boka reEther (COC)
MaEther anoita zvakasiyana nealcohols nekuti haana maproton anogona kuburitswa zviri nyore.
Maitiro eAcid Cleavage
MaEther anogona kuchekwa neacids dzakasimba kuti agadzire alcohols nealkyl halides.
``
RO-R' + HBr → R-OH + R'-Br
``
Mhepo Inokonzeresa Kushanduka kweAutooxide
MaEther anogona kuoxidized nemhepo kuti agadzire ether peroxides inoputika.
``
2 RO-R' + O2 → 2 RO-R'-O-OH
``
Mhedziso
Kunzwisisa zvakakwana maitiro chaiwo emapoka anoshanda mumakemikari echisikigo kwakakosha pakushandiswa kwakasiyana-siyana. Mapoka anoshanda anoona hunhu hwemakemikari uye mashandiro emamorekuru, zvichigonesa shanduko dzakasiyana-siyana dzemakemikari akakosha mumakemikari echisikigo, echisikigo, uye ezvinhu. Nekushandisa ruzivo urwu, masayendisiti emakemikari anogona kugadzira nekuvaka mamorekuru matsva ane mashandisirwo akakura muhutano, tekinoroji, nezvimwewo.
