Nhoroondo yeKuvandudzwa kweMazuva Ano eMolecular Biology
Biology yemamorekuru yemazuva ano ibazi resainzi rinoongorora maitiro ehupenyu padanho remamorekuru—kunyanya DNA, RNA, uye mapuroteni, pamwe chete nenzira dzinodzora kutaura kwemajini uye nhaka. Iyi dzidziso yave iri hwaro hwekufambira mberi kwesainzi netekinoroji, kubva pakuongorora zvirwere zvine chekuita nemajini kusvika pakugadzira zvipenyu zvekudya nemishonga. Kukura kwayo hakuna kuitika kamwe kamwe, asi kuburikidza neruzivo rwakatevedzana rwezvakawanikwa zvinosimbisana, gakava, uye hunyanzvi kubva kumagumo kwezana remakore rechi19 kusvika panguva yazvino ye genomics uye synthetic biology.
Midzi yekare: kubva kumasero kusvika kumamorekuru
Izwi rekuti "molecular biology" risati ratangwa, biology yakanga yatochinja-chinja kuburikidza nedzidziso yemasero (Schleiden naSchwann) uye dzidziso yekushanduka-shanduka (Darwin). Zvisinei, mubvunzo mukuru wakaramba uripo: chii chiri hwaro hwekugara nhaka kwehunhu? Mukupera kwezana remakore rechi19, Gregor Mendel akagadzira mitemo yekugara nhaka kuburikidza nekuyedza nepizi. Zvakawanikwa naMendel pakutanga hazvina kunyanya kutariswa, asi zvakazova musimboti wemajini paaka "wanikwazve" pakutanga kwezana remakore rechi20.
Panguva imwe cheteyo, masayendisiti akatanga kuongorora maumbirwo emasero zvakadzama. Kuwanikwa kwemachromosomes uye kuonekwa kwekupatsanurwa kwemasero (mitosis nemeiosis) kwakaita kuti pave nefungidziro yekuti zvikamu zvenhaka zvinogara mumachromosomes. Thomas Hunt Morgan nechikwata chake vakaratidza kubatana kwemajini nemachromosomes kuburikidza nezvidzidzo zvefruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. Izvi zvakasimbisa kuti majini ane nzvimbo chaiyo, asi hazvina kupindura mubvunzo wehunhu hwavo hwemakemikari: majini anoumbwa nemapuroteni here kana kuti nucleic acids?
DNA sezvinhu zvemajini: kurwira humbowo
Mukutanga kwezana remakore rechi20, masayendisiti mazhinji aiona mapuroteni seanonyanya kukonzera majini nekuda kwekuoma kwawo. DNA yaionekwa seyakapfava. Shanduko huru yakatanga apo Frederick Griffith (1928) akawana chiitiko che "shanduko" muStreptococcus pneumoniae bacteria: mabhakitiriya asina hutachiona anogona kuva hutachiona mushure mekusangana nezvinhu zvinobva kubhakitiriya akafa. Zvisinei, Griffith akanga asati aziva chinoshandura.
Kubudirira kwakauya nekuyedza kwaAvery, MacLeod, naMcCarty (1944), kwakaratidza kuti chinhu chinoshandura chimiro chaive DNA. Kunyange zvazvo zvichiri kukakavadzana, humbowo hwakava hwakasimba mushure mekuyedza kwaHershey naChase (1952) vachishandisa mabhakitiriya: DNA yehutachiona chete ndiyo yakapinda mumasero ebhakitiriya uye yakatakura ruzivo rwekuumba mavhairasi matsva. Saka, DNA yakagamuchirwa sezvinhu zvemajini.
Maumbirwo eDNA uye kuberekwa kweparadigm itsva
Kuziva kuti DNA ndiyo genetic material kwakamutsa mubvunzo unotevera: DNA inochengeta sei uye inokopa sei ruzivo? Mhinduro inoshamisa yakabuda muna 1953 apo James Watson naFrancis Crick vakapa muenzaniso weDNA we double helix. Vakashandisa data reX-ray diffraction kubva kuna Rosalind Franklin naMaurice Wilkins. Chimiro che double helix, chine ma base pairs ayo anowirirana (A-T na G-C), chakatsanangura mashandiro e replication: tambo yega yega inogona kushanda se template ye tambo itsva.
Kuwanikwa uku hakuna kungopindura mubvunzo wekuti DNA inokopa sei, asiwo kwakaisa hwaro hwekuzvarwa kwebiology yemamorekuru semudzidzi wemazuva ano. "Ruzivo rwezvinhu zvipenyu" rwaigona kunzwisiswa senhevedzano yenheyo dzine nitrogen dzinogona kugara nhaka uye kushandurwa kuita basa remasero.
Dzidziso huru uye kunzwisisa kwekufamba kwemashoko ezvemajini
Mumakore ekuma1950 nekuma1960, pfungwa yekuyerera kwemashoko ezvemajini yakagadzirwa mune zvakazozivikanwa se "dzidziso huru": DNA inoshandurwa kuita RNA, iyo inozoshandurwa kuita protein. Kunyangwe zvimwe zvinhu (zvakadai se reverse transcription muma retroviruses) zvakazozivikanwa, dzidziso iyi inopa ruzivo rwakakura rwekuti majini anodzora sei hunhu hwechisikwa.
Kuwanikwa kwemRNA kwakajekesa kuti RNA inoshanda semurevereri pakati peDNA nemapuroteni. Zvadaro, masayendisiti akaongorora kodhi yemajini—mitemo inobatanidza mabhesi matatu (macodon) nemaamino acids. Marshall Nirenberg, Har Gobind Khorana, nevamwe vavo vakaratidza kuti kutevedzana kwemanucleotides kunosarudza kutevedzana kwemaamino acids mumapuroteni. Izvi zvakaita kuti hukama huripo pakati pemajini nezvigadzirwa zvavo huve hwakasimba uye hunogona kuyedzwa mukuyedza.
Kuchinja kwema enzyme uye tekinoroji yeDNA inosanganiswa
Kufambira mberi mu biology yemamorekuru kwakafambiswa zvikuru nekuwanikwa kwezvishandiso zve "morekuru", kunyanya ma enzymes. Ma enzymes ekudzora - "chigero" chinocheka DNA panguva dzakatarwa - akagadzira nzira yekushandura DNA chaiyo. Pamwe chete neDNA ligases, iyo inogona "kubatanidza" zvidimbu zveDNA, masayendisiti muma1970 akagadzira tekinoroji yeDNA recombinant: kusanganisa DNA kubva kunzvimbo dzakasiyana uye kuiisa muzvinhu zvipenyu zvakaita semabhakitiriya kuti zviwedzere kana kuti zviratidzike.
Kuuya kweinjiniya yemajini kwakakanganisa zvikuru sainzi nemaindasitiri. Kugadzirwa kwe insulin yevanhu vachishandisa mabhakitiriya anosanganiswa ne recombinant kwaive muenzaniso wekutanga, kwakachinja kurapa chirwere cheshuga. Zvisinei, shanduko iyi yakakonzerawo gakava pamusoro petsika nekuchengetedzwa kwezvipenyu. Asilomar Conference (1975) yakaratidza danho guru mukugadzira gwara rekutsvagisa DNA inosanganiswa ne recombinant, ichiratidza kuti sainzi yemazuva ano inoshanduka sei pamwe chete nemitemo uye mutoro wevanhu.
Nzira dzekutevedzana uye kusvetuka kusvika kunguva ye genome
Danho rinotevera raive rekuverenga zvakananga maDNA sequences. Mukupera kwema1970, Frederick Sanger akagadzira nzira yekutevedzana kweDNA yaizova chiyero kwemakumi emakore. Nekugona kuverenga magene sequences, molecular biology yakachinja kubva pakunzwisisa mashandiro kuenda pakukwanisa kuyera ruzivo rwemagene zvakadzama.
Ma1980 akaunza hunyanzvi hutsva hunochinja mutambo: PCR (polymerase chain reaction), yakagadzirwa naKary Mullis. PCR yakaita kuti zvikwanisike kuwedzera huwandu hwakawanda hwezvidimbu zveDNA nekukurumidza, zvakachipa, uye zviri nyore. Iyi tekinoroji yakakurumidzisa nzvimbo dzese dzebiology yemamorekuru—kubva pakutsvagurudza kwekutanga uye forensics kusvika pakuongororwa kwezvirwere zvinotapukira.
Chinhu chikuru pane zvese zvaitarisirwa munguva ye genome chaive Human Genome Project (1990–2003), chirongwa chepasi rose chakakwanisa kugadzira genome remunhu. Kubudirira uku kwakaratidza shanduko huru: kubva pakudzidza majini ega ega kusvika pakudzidza majini ese, network dzemajini, uye kusiyana kwemajini evanhu.
Post-genome: kudzorwa kwemajini, epigenetics, uye RNA isina coding
Mushure mekunge genome remunhu raverengwa, mubvunzo mukuru wakachinja: kana huwandu hwemajini evanhu husina kukwira sezvaitarisirwa, kuomarara kwechisikwa kunomuka sei? Kutarisa kwakachinjirwa kumitemo yemajini—rini, kupi, uye kuti majini anoratidzwa zvakasimba sei. Tsvagiridzo yakaratidza basa rakakosha rezvinhu zvinodzora, transcription factors, uye chromatin structure.
Epigenetics iri kukura nekukurumidza semunda unodzidza shanduko mukugadzirwa kwemajini pasina kuchinja kurongeka kweDNA, semuenzaniso kuburikidza neDNA methylation uye histone modifications. Uyezve, kuwanikwa kwemaRNA asina makodhi akadai semiRNAs nelncRNAs kwakaratidza kuti RNA haisi kungori murevereri chete asiwo inodzora maitiro akasiyana-siyana emasero. Kunzwisisa uku kunosimbisa dzidziso huru uye kunoratidza kuti kuyerera kwemashoko emajini kune simba guru.
Nguva yekugadzirisa majini uye biology yekugadzira
Mumakore gumi apfuura, kugadzirisa majini kwave nekuchinja kukuru nekuda kweCRISPR-Cas9. Iyi tekinoroji inobvumira DNA kuchekwa panzvimbo dzaunoda uchishandisa RNA segwara, zvichibvumira shanduko dzemajini kuitwa nekukurumidza uye zvakachipa zvichienzaniswa nenzira dzakamboshandiswa. CRISPR yakakurumidzisa kutsvagurudza mashandiro emajini, kukura kwezvirimwa zvisingarwari zvirwere, uye kunyangwe kuyedzwa kwekurapa majini.
Panguva imwe chete, biology yekugadzira zvinhu yakatanga senzira isingango "gadzirisi" chete asiwo inogadzira masisitimu matsva ehupenyu. Masayendisiti akatanga kuvaka ma genetic circuits akadai sekuunganidza zvikamu zvemagetsi: zvinokurudzira, majini, uye zvinodzora zvakarongwa kuti zvigadzire maitiro chaiwo mumasero. Zvinangwa zvacho zvaive kubva pakugadzira biofuels nezvinhu zvisina njodzi kune zvakatipoteredza kusvika pakurapa kenza nemasero.
Mhedziso: biology yemamorekuru sehwaro hweramangwana
Nhoroondo yemazuva ano yemakemikari ehupenyu inyaya yekuti mubvunzo uri nyore—chii chiri hwaro hwenhaka?—wakashanduka kusvika pakunzwisisa kwakadzama mashandiro ehupenyu padanho rayo guru. Kubva pakuedza kushanduka kwemabhakitiriya, kusvika pakuwanikwa kweDNA double helix, kusvika pakupwanyika kwekodhi yemajini, kusvika pakuongorora, PCR, uye matekinoroji eCRISPR, chiitiko chimwe nechimwe chakavhura mukana wekufambira mberi.
Mune ramangwana, biology yemamorekuru ichawedzera kubatana ne bioinformatics, artificial intelligence, uye matekinoroji e-single-cell anokwanisa kuronga maitiro ezvebhayoloji nenzira inoshamisa. Panguva imwe chete, matambudziko etsika - kuvanzika kwedata remagene, kuchengetedzeka kwebioengineering, uye mukana wakaenzana wekurapa kwakavakirwa pamagene - zvicharamba zvichititambudza. Kunzwisisa nhoroondo yayo kunotibvumira kuona kuti biology yemamorekuru haisi muunganidzwa wematekiniki chete, asi chimwe chezvinhu zvikuru zvakabudirira muhungwaru hwevanhu mukuverenga, kududzira, uye, kusvika pamwero wakati, kunyora patsva mutauro wehupenyu.
