Chikhalidwe cha Achinyamata cha Miyala ku Indonesia
Nthawi ya Neolithic ku Indonesia ikutanthauza gawo lofunika kwambiri m'mbiri isanayambe yomwe imadziwika kuti Neolithic Age. Munthawi imeneyi, anthu adasintha kwambiri moyo wawo: kuchoka pa kudalira chilengedwe (kusaka ndi kusonkhanitsa) kupita ku moyo wokhazikika wokhudza ulimi ndi kuweta ziweto. Kusintha kumeneku sikunangokhala pazida zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito, komanso kunakhudza momwe anthu adakhazikitsira midzi, kukonza ntchito, kupanga miyambo, komanso kupanga machitidwe azikhulupiriro. M'zilumba za ku Indonesia, chikhalidwe cha Neolithic sichinatuluke mofanana, koma chinakula kudzera munjira yayitali yokhudzidwa ndi kusamuka kwa anthu, kulumikizana pakati pa magulu, komanso kusinthana ndi chilengedwe chapafupi.
Tanthauzo ndi Makhalidwe a Chikhalidwe cha Batu Muda
Mawu akuti "mwala wachinyamata" amatanthauza ukadaulo wopangidwa bwino komanso wapamwamba kwambiri wa zida zamwala poyerekeza ndi nthawi zam'mbuyomu (Paleolithic ndi Mesolithic). Zida zamwala panthawiyi nthawi zambiri zinkanoledwa kukhala pamwamba posalala, lakuthwa, komanso lofanana. Makhalidwe akuluakulu a chikhalidwe cha Neolithic ku Indonesia akuphatikizapo zinthu zingapo zofunika: kugwiritsa ntchito zida zamwala zonoledwa, kubuka kwa ulimi ndi ziweto, moyo wokhazikika, kupangidwa kwa midzi kapena midzi, chitukuko cha miphika, ndi kubuka kwa miyambo ya megalithic ngati gawo la zikhulupiriro.
Kusintha kuchoka pa moyo woyendayenda kupita ku moyo wokhazikika kunakhazikitsa maziko a kukhazikitsidwa kwa magulu ovuta kwambiri. Pamene anthu anayamba kupanga chakudya chawo kudzera mu ulimi, panafunika kusunga mbewu, kukonza kugawa ntchito, ndi kusamalira madera awo olimidwa. Izi zinawapangitsa kumanga nyumba zokhazikika, kupanga zipangizo zosungiramo zinthu monga miphika, ndi kukhazikitsa malamulo okhwima okhudza chikhalidwe cha anthu.
Mbiri Yoyambira Chikhalidwe cha Neolithic ku Indonesia
Akatswiri ambiri amagwirizanitsa kufalikira kwa chikhalidwe cha Neolithic ku Indonesia ndi kusamuka kwa olankhula Chiaustronesia ochokera ku Asia ndi Taiwan, komwe kunachitika m'mafunde angapo. Anabweretsa luso laulimi, ukadaulo wa mabwato, ndi mwambo wopanga zida zamwala zakuthwa. Kuchokera kumpoto, kufalikiraku kunapita patsogolo kudutsa ku Philippines ndi ku zilumba za Indonesia, kenako kunafalikira kuzilumba zosiyanasiyana monga Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Java, Nusa Tenggara, Maluku, komanso Papua.
Zilumba za ku Indonesia zili ndi mavuto ndi mwayi: chilumba chilichonse chili ndi malo akeake. M'madera ena, ulimi unakula chifukwa cha nthaka yachonde komanso madzi ambiri; m'madera ena, anthu anapitiriza kuphatikiza ulimi ndi kusaka, kusodza, kapena kusonkhanitsa zinthu zakuthengo. Chifukwa chake, chikhalidwe cha miyala cha ku Indonesia sichili chitsanzo chimodzi, koma ndi mndandanda wa miyambo yolumikizana.
Zida Zamwala Zomwe Ndi Zizindikiro Zazikulu
Chimodzi mwa zizindikiro zoonekeratu za nthawi yatsopano ya miyala ndi zida za miyala zopukutidwa. Ku Indonesia, mitundu iwiri ya zida zomwe zimatchulidwa nthawi zambiri ndi nkhwangwa za sikweya ndi nkhwangwa zozungulira.
1. Nkhwangwa za sikweya zimapezeka kwambiri kumadzulo kwa Indonesia, monga Sumatra, Java, Bali, ndi mbali zina za Kalimantan. Nkhwangwa zimenezi zili ndi sikweya kapena trapezoidal cross-section. Zimagwira ntchito zosiyanasiyana: kudula mitengo, kukonza matabwa, kumanga nyumba, ndi ntchito zaulimi.
2. Nkhwangwa zozungulira zimapezeka kwambiri kum'mawa, makamaka ku Maluku, Papua, ndi madera ena a Sulawesi. Mbali yawo yopingasa ndi yopingasa kapena yozungulira. Nkhwangwa zimenezi zinkagwiritsidwanso ntchito pa ntchito zolemetsa monga kupala matabwa ndi kudula nthaka.
Kusiyana kumeneku pakugawika nthawi zambiri kumatanthauzidwa ngati zizindikiro za njira zosamukira ndi kusiyana kwa chikhalidwe. Kupatula nkhwangwa, zida zina zamwala monga ma tchizo, mipeni yamwala, miyala yopera, ndi zida zophwanyika zimapezekanso, zomwe zimagwiritsidwabe ntchito pazinthu zinazake. Kupezeka kwa miyala yopera, mwachitsanzo, kumasonyeza kukonza chakudya monga tirigu kapena tubers.
Kukula kwa Ulimi ndi Moyo Wongokhala
Mu nthawi ya New Stone Age, ulimi unakhala ntchito yofunika kwambiri. Anthu anayamba kulima mpunga, mapira, tubers, ndi mbewu zina zosiyanasiyana, kutengera momwe zinthu zilili. Kuphatikiza apo, ulimi wa ziweto unakulanso, ngakhale kuti nthawi zina sunali wofala m'madera onse. Ulimi unathandiza anthu kuti asadalirenso kusaka kapena zinthu zina zanyengo. Ulimi unkatha kupanga chakudya chochuluka, zomwe zinathandiza kuti anthu azikula komanso kuti anthu azikhala m'malo okhala.
Moyo wokhala ndi anthu okhala m'madera osiyanasiyana unakhudza kwambiri. Kukhazikika kwa anthu kunayamba kukhala ndi nyumba: malo osungiramo zinthu, malo ophikira, ndi minda. M'madera okhala anthu okhala m'madera osiyanasiyana, kugawa ntchito kunakhala kosiyana kwambiri—ena ankayang'ana kwambiri pa kuyeretsa malo, kubzala mbewu, kukonza chakudya, kupanga zida, kapena kusunga chitetezo. Pang'onopang'ono, ntchito zachuma monga kusinthana pakati pa magulu zimatha kuchitika, makamaka ngati dera limodzi lili ndi zinthu zomwe ena analibe.
Luso la Zoumba ndi Kupanga
Kubuka kwa mbiya ndi chizindikiro chofunikira cha kupita patsogolo kwa ukadaulo. Miphika inathandiza anthu kusunga chakudya, kuphika, kunyamula madzi, ndi kusunga mbewu. Kupanga mbiya kumasonyezanso luso lapadera: kusankha dongo, kupanga mawonekedwe, kuumitsa, ndi njira zowotcha. Nthawi zina, mbiya imakongoletsedwa ndi mizere yosavuta, kukakamiza, kapena zojambula za geometric zomwe zimasonyeza zokonda za gulu ndi chikhalidwe chawo.
Zoumba sizimangothandiza kwenikweni, komanso zitha kugwiritsidwanso ntchito pamwambo. Zomwe zapezeka zikusonyeza kuti mwina zoumba zinkagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati zinthu zoika maliro kapena zida zamwambo. Izi zikusonyeza kuti anthu a ku Neolithic anayamba kuzindikira zizindikiro zolemera m'moyo watsiku ndi tsiku.
Miyambo Yaikulu ndi Machitidwe a Chikhulupiriro
Ngakhale kuti miyambo ya megalithic nthawi zambiri inakula kwambiri pambuyo pake, mizu ya kulambira makolo inayamba kuonekera mu New Stone Age. Megalithic imatanthauza "mwala waukulu," kutanthauza nyumba kapena zipilala zopangidwa ndi miyala ikuluikulu zomwe nthawi zambiri zimagwirizanitsidwa ndi zikhulupiriro zachipembedzo. M'madera angapo a ku Indonesia, nyumba za megalithic monga menhirs (mizati ya miyala), dolmens (matebulo a miyala), sarcophagi (mabokosi a miyala), manda a miyala, ndi maguwa ansembe okhala ndi mipanda yozungulira zinapezeka.
Miyambo ya Megalithic imasonyeza kuti anthu anali ndi malingaliro okhudza moyo wa pambuyo pa imfa, kulemekeza makolo, komanso kukhalapo kwa anthu ofunikira m'derali. Kumanga nyumba zazikulu za miyala kumafuna ntchito yogwirizana, zomwe zikusonyeza kuti anthu anali ndi dongosolo lapamwamba kwambiri. Zikhulupiriro zimenezi nthawi zambiri zinkagwirizana ndi chilengedwe: mapiri, miyala, nkhalango, ndi magwero a madzi nthawi zambiri ankaonedwa kuti ali ndi mphamvu zapadera.
Kugawa ndi Malo Ofunika
Kufalikira kwa chikhalidwe cha Neolithic ku Indonesia kungawonekere kuchokera ku kupezeka kwa zida zamwala ndi zotsalira za midzi m'madera osiyanasiyana. Nkhwangwa zazikulu zimapezeka kwambiri pazilumba za Java ndi Sumatra, pomwe nkhwangwa zoonda kwambiri ndizofala ku Papua ndi Maluku. M'madera angapo, umboni wa malo okhala wapezekanso mu mawonekedwe a zinyalala za kukhitchini (kjokkenmoddinger) kapena nyumba za m'mapanga, ngakhale kuti mawuwa nthawi zambiri amagwirizanitsidwa ndi nthawi zakale. Mu nthawi ya Neolithic, nyumba zotseguka pafupi ndi mitsinje ndi nthaka yachonde zinayamba kufala kwambiri.
Ku Nusa Tenggara ndi Sulawesi, makhalidwe a chikhalidwe cha miyala cha achinyamata amasakanikirana ndi miyambo yakomweko komanso malo apadera. Mwachitsanzo, ku Papua, kugwiritsa ntchito nkhwangwa zozungulira kunapitilira kwa nthawi yayitali, ndipo m'madera ena, mwambo wogwiritsa ntchito zida za miyala unapitilirabe mpaka posachedwapa, chifukwa cha malo komanso kusagwirizana pang'ono ndi anthu akunja.
Mmene Chikhalidwe cha Batu Muda Chimakhudzira Mbiri ya Indonesia
Chikhalidwe cha Neolithic chinakhazikitsa maziko a chitukuko cha anthu aku Indonesia. Izi zinayambitsa moyo wokhazikika, machitidwe aulimi, ukadaulo wopanga zinthu (monga zoumba mbiya), ndi machitidwe okonzedwa bwino a anthu. Kutha kuyang'anira chilengedwe ndikupanga zinthu zambiri kunayambitsa kukula kwa anthu ndikuwonjezera mwayi wolumikizana pakati pa magulu. Izi pamapeto pake zidatsegula njira ya Nyengo ya Zitsulo ndi kupangidwa kwa madera ovuta kwambiri, kuphatikizapo kubuka kwa atsogoleri am'deralo ndi miyambo yayikulu yachipembedzo.
Kuphatikiza apo, chikhalidwe cha nthawi ya miyala chinathandizanso pakupanga mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya chikhalidwe. Indonesia sinali chiyambire kuchokera ku malo amodzi otukuka, koma m'malo mwake kuchokera kumadera ambiri omwe adakula pazilumba zosiyanasiyana. Zotsatira za izi zitha kuwonekabe mu kugawa zida za miyala, miyambo yaulimi, machitidwe okhala, ndi cholowa cha chikhalidwe cha megalithic, chomwe chidakalipobe m'njira zosiyanasiyana mpaka lero.
Kutseka
Nthawi ya Neolithic ku Indonesia ikuyimira nthawi yayikulu yosinthira zinthu isanayambe mbiri ya dzikolo, zomwe zikuwonetsa kupita patsogolo kwa ukadaulo, kusintha kwachuma, komanso chitukuko cha anthu. Kuyambira zida zowongoka za miyala mpaka miphika, kuyambira moyo woyendayenda mpaka miyambo yokhazikika komanso yaulimi, anthu okhala m'zilumba za ku Indonesia adalowa gawo latsopano pakukula kwa chitukuko. Zilumba zapadera za ku Indonesia zidapangitsa kuti chitukuko cha nthawi ya Neolithic chikhale chosiyanasiyana kwambiri, ndikusiya cholowa chofunikira chomwe chidagwira ntchito ngati maziko a mbiri ya dzikolo pambuyo pake.
