Malingaliro mu Chilankhulo cha Anthu
Anthropology ya zilankhulo ndi nthambi ya sayansi yomwe imaphunzira chilankhulo ngati chikhalidwe cha anthu. Cholinga chake chimaposa kapangidwe ka chilankhulo (monga galamala kapena phonology), komanso momwe anthu amagwiritsira ntchito chilankhulo popanga tanthauzo, kukonza ubale wa anthu, kukambirana za umunthu, ndikusunga kapena kutsutsa mphamvu m'moyo watsiku ndi tsiku. Popeza chilankhulo nthawi zonse chimakhalapo m'nkhani, anthropology ya zilankhulo imafufuzanso momwe anthu amalankhulira, miyambo yolankhulirana, makhalidwe a chikhalidwe, mbiri ya atsamunda, kuyenda, ndi ukadaulo womwe umawongolera momwe anthu amalankhulira ndikumvetsetsa mawu. Kuti timvetse kusiyana kwa malingaliro kumeneku, malingaliro ndi njira zingapo zapangidwa ndikukhala maziko a maphunziro a anthropology ya zilankhulo. Izi ndi zina mwa mfundo zofunika kwambiri komanso zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito mobwerezabwereza.
1. Kugwirizana kwa Zilankhulo: Sapir–Whorf
Chiphunzitso cha kugwirizana kwa zilankhulo, chomwe nthawi zambiri chimagwirizanitsidwa ndi Edward Sapir ndi Benjamin Lee Whorf, chimati chilankhulo chimagwirizana ndi momwe anthu amaganizira dziko lapansi. Mu "mphamvu" (chilankhulo chotsimikizika), chilankhulo chimaganiziridwa kuti chimayambitsa kuganiza. Mtundu wovomerezeka kwambiri ndi "wofooka": chilankhulo chimakhudza chidwi, zizolowezi zoganiza, ndi momwe timagawira zokumana nazo m'magulu.
Mu maphunziro a anthu a zilankhulo, kugwirizana kwa zilankhulo n'kothandiza pofufuza momwe magulu a galamala, mawu, kapena mafanizo a chikhalidwe amakhudzira momwe anthu ammudzi amatanthauzira nthawi, malo, mtundu, ubale, malingaliro, kapena makhalidwe abwino. Njira imeneyi siimayika chilankhulo ngati "ndende ya malingaliro," koma ngati chida chachikhalidwe chomwe chimazolowera olankhula ake kuti awonetse mbali zina za zenizeni. Kafukufuku wa zilankhulo zosiyanasiyana pa mawu otsogolera, machitidwe a manambala, kapena mayina a ubale nthawi zambiri amapereka zitsanzo za momwe chilankhulo chimagwirizanirana ndi machitidwe a chidziwitso.
2. Kapangidwe ka Chilankhulo ndi Dongosolo la Zizindikiro
Kapangidwe ka zinthu, komwe kumachokera ku Ferdinand de Saussure, kumaona chilankhulo ngati dongosolo la zizindikiro zomwe tanthauzo lake limatsimikiziridwa ndi ubale pakati pa zinthu zomwe zili mkati mwa dongosololi, osati ubale wawo mwachindunji ndi dziko lapansi. Lingaliro la chizindikiro ndi chizindikiro limagogomezera kuti tanthauzo ndi ubale. Kapangidwe ka zinthu kakhudza kwambiri chikhalidwe cha anthu (monga Claude Lévi-Strauss) m'malingaliro ake kuti chikhalidwe, kuphatikizapo chilankhulo, chimapangidwa ndi kapangidwe kokhoza kufufuzidwa.
Mu maphunziro a anthu a zilankhulo, cholowa cha kapangidwe ka zinthu chimawonekera bwino poyang'ana kwambiri mapangidwe, kusagwirizana kwa binary, ndi machitidwe a magulu. Ngakhale pambuyo pake adatsutsidwa chifukwa chogogomezera kwambiri "kapangidwe" komanso kusaganizira kusiyanasiyana kwa machitidwe, kapangidwe ka zinthu kanathandiza kupereka zida zowunikira kuti amvetsetse kusinthasintha kwa zilankhulo ndi chikhalidwe.
3. Kufotokozera za Kulankhulana kwa Anthu: Dell Hymes
Dell Hymes adapanga njira yolankhulirana ngati njira yowunikira luso la zilankhulo, lomwe limangoyang'ana luso la chilankhulo la olankhula. Malinga ndi Hymes, kuti timvetse bwino chilankhulo, tiyenera kuphunzira luso lolankhulana: luso logwiritsa ntchito chilankhulo moyenera m'mikhalidwe ya anthu komanso chikhalidwe. Iye adapanga chida chodziwika bwino chowunikira kudzera mu chidule cha SPEAKING (Setting/Scene, Participants, Ends, Act sequence, Key, Instrumentalities, Norms, Genre).
Njira imeneyi imalimbikitsa ofufuza kuti alowe m'munda kuti akaone momwe anthu amalankhulira m'mikhalidwe yeniyeni yolankhulirana: miyambo yachikhalidwe, misonkhano ya m'mudzi, kuyanjana kwa mabanja, makalasi a kusukulu, misika, komanso zokambirana pa intaneti. Kulankhulana kwa anthu kumagogomezera kuti malamulo a "ulemu," kusankha chilankhulo, njira zolankhulirana, ndi omwe angalankhule komanso nthawi yomwe zinthu zonsezi ndi mbali ya chikhalidwe cha anthu. Mwa kuyankhula kwina, chilankhulo si chida chongopereka mauthenga, komanso njira yowongolera moyo wa anthu onse.
4. Chiphunzitso cha Zochita Zolankhula: Austin ndi Searle
Chiphunzitso cha zochita za kulankhula chimati munthu akamalankhula, samangonena kanthu kokha, komanso "amachita" kanthu. J.L. Austin adayambitsa kusiyana pakati pa zochita za locutionary (zomwe zanenedwa), zochita za illocutionary (ntchito/cholinga cha chochitikacho, monga kupereka lamulo kapena lonjezo), ndi zochita za polankhula (zomwe zimakhudza womvera). Pambuyo pake John Searle adapanga gulu la zochita za polankhula monga malangizo, ma commissives, zochita zoyimira, zochita zowonetsa, ndi zochita zolengeza.
Mu chikhalidwe cha anthu, chiphunzitso cha zochita zolankhulidwa chimagwiritsidwa ntchito pofufuza machitidwe a anthu monga malumbiro achikhalidwe, mapemphero, matemberero, miyambo yotchula mayina, mapangano aukwati, malamulo okhwima, ndi zokambirana m'malo opezeka anthu ambiri. Chimayang'ana kwambiri pa mikhalidwe ya chisangalalo: pamene mawu "ali ovomerezeka" ndipo akuzindikirika. Izi zikuwonetsa kuti mphamvu, mabungwe, ndi miyambo yachikhalidwe zimatsimikiza ngati mawu ali ndi zotsatira pa anthu.
5. Kusanthula Kuyanjana ndi Kukambirana
Kusanthula kwa zizindikiro ndi kukambirana (CA) kumafufuza momwe dongosolo la anthu limakhalira pamlingo wocheperako kudzera muzochita za tsiku ndi tsiku. CA imayang'ana kwambiri pakusinthana, kuyimitsa, kusokoneza, kukonza, kuseka, kutsindika, ndi mawiri oyandikana monga moni ndi mayankho kapena mafunso ndi mayankho.
Pa maphunziro a chikhalidwe cha anthu, njira iyi ndi yofunika chifukwa imasonyeza kuti miyambo ya chikhalidwe siimawoneka ngati malamulo omveka bwino nthawi zonse, koma imapezeka m'makhalidwe obwerezabwereza olankhulana. Mwachitsanzo, momwe anthu amakanira zopempha mwanjira ina, momwe amasonyezera ulemu mwa kusankha mawu, kapena momwe amasungira nkhope ndi anzawo okambirana. Mwa kusanthula mwatsatanetsatane deta yokambirana, ofufuza amatha kuwona momwe kudziwika, ulamuliro, ndi mgwirizano zimakambidwa nthawi ndi nthawi.
6. Kugwira ntchito, Kufotokozera Zinthu, ndi Nkhani
Pragmatics imafufuza tanthauzo la mawu kutengera momwe agwiritsidwira ntchito. Lingaliro limodzi lofunika kwambiri mu chikhalidwe cha anthu ndi indexicality: kuthekera kwa zinthu za chilankhulo (monga ma pronouns, milingo yolankhulira, mawu ofotokozera, kapena kusankha mawu) "kuloza" kuzinthu zina zachikhalidwe, monga udindo, kuzolowerana, jenda, fuko, kapena malingaliro.
Michael Silverstein akulimbitsa chidwi cha anthu pa nkhani ya kusinthasintha mawu ndipo akuwonetsa kuti tanthauzo la chilankhulo si lopanda tsankho. Kalembedwe ka mawu kangatchule "ophunzira," "dziko," "ozizira," kapena "ovomerezeka," kutengera malingaliro a chilankhulo omwe alipo. Kudzera mu lens iyi, maphunziro a chilankhulo amafufuza momwe anthu amagwiritsira ntchito kusiyanasiyana kwa chilankhulo kuti adziyimitse okha, apange mtunda, amange mgwirizano, kapena kusonyeza mgwirizano wa gulu.
7. Malingaliro ndi Mphamvu za Chilankhulo
Chiphunzitso cha mfundo za chilankhulo chimagogomezera kuti zikhulupiriro za anthu pankhani ya chilankhulo—zomwe zimaonedwa kuti “zolondola,” “zokongola,” “zaulemu,” kapena “zadziko”—zimagwirizana kwambiri ndi ndale ndi mphamvu za munthu. Mfundo za chilankhulo zimatha kusintha mfundo za maphunziro, kukhazikika, kunyansidwa kwa zilankhulo, komanso mwayi wachuma wa olankhula.
Mu nkhani zokhudzana ndi zilankhulo zosiyanasiyana, mfundo za chilankhulo zimafotokoza chifukwa chake zilankhulo zina zimalimbikitsidwa ngati zilankhulo zovomerezeka pomwe zilankhulo zakomweko zimasiyidwa. Zimathandizanso kufufuza momwe utsamunda, kumanga dziko, ndi kufalikira kwa mayiko padziko lonse lapansi zimakhudzira machitidwe a zilankhulo. Ofufuza nthawi zambiri amafufuza nkhani za atolankhani, mfundo za boma, machitidwe a masukulu, ndi zomwe anthu olankhula zilankhulo zochepa amakumana nazo kuti aone momwe kusalingana kumabwerezedwera kudzera mu chilankhulo—kapena kutsutsidwa kudzera mu kukonzanso zilankhulo ndi kayendetsedwe ka kudziwika.
8. Kugwira ntchito, Kudziwika, ndi Kalembedwe
Chiphunzitso cha machitidwe—chomwe chimakhudzidwa kwambiri ndi akatswiri oganiza ngati Judith Butler mu maphunziro a amuna ndi akazi—chimafotokoza lingaliro lakuti kudziwika si chinthu “chokhazikika,” koma chopangidwa kudzera mu zochita zobwerezabwereza, kuphatikizapo machitidwe a chilankhulo. Mu maphunziro a anthu a zilankhulo, kuphunzira kalembedwe kumafufuza momwe olankhula amasankhira ma rejista enaake, mawu olankhulidwa, chilankhulo chosakanikirana, kapena mawu kuti “adzionetse” okha: monga achinyamata, akatswiri, achipembedzo, amakono, achikhalidwe, ndi zina zotero.
Njira imeneyi ndi yofunika kwambiri pofufuza zochitika za m'mizinda ndi pa intaneti: kusakaniza ma code, slang, memes, ndi mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya zilankhulo pa malo ochezera a pa Intaneti. Chilankhulo chimamveka ngati chida chopangira anthu ndi malo ochezera a pa Intaneti. Chifukwa chake, kudziwika kumawonedwa ngati kosinthika komanso kokambirana, osati chizindikiro chokha.
9. Chilankhulo cha Anthu ndi Kusiyanasiyana kwa Zilankhulo
Ngakhale kuti sociolinguistics nthawi zambiri imaonedwa ngati gawo losiyana, ndi gawo la chikhalidwe cha anthu m'zilankhulo, komanso kuphunzira kusiyana kwa zilankhulo zokhudzana ndi gulu la anthu, fuko, zaka, maukonde a ubwenzi, ndi kuyenda. Cholinga chake chachikulu si kungodziwa kusiyana komwe kulipo, koma chifukwa chake kuli ndi tanthauzo komanso momwe anthu amakuonera. Kusiyana kumeneku kumaonedwa ngati njira yolumikizirana ndi anthu yolumikizidwa ndi mbiri yakomweko, kusamuka, ndi ubale wa magulu.
Njira imeneyi imathandiza kumvetsetsa kusintha kwa chilankhulo ndi momwe mitundu ina ya chilankhulo imafikira paudindo "wokhazikika" pomwe ina imasalidwa. Kafukufukuyu nthawi zambiri amakhudza nkhani za maphunziro, mwayi wopeza ntchito, ndi tsankho.
Kutseka
Malingaliro mu chikhalidwe cha anthu m'zilankhulo amasonyeza kuti chilankhulo sichingalekanitsidwe ndi moyo wa anthu. Kugwirizana kwa chilankhulo kumathandiza kufotokoza ubale womwe ulipo pakati pa chilankhulo ndi njira zoganizira dziko; kapangidwe ka zinthu kumapereka zida zowerengera chilankhulo ngati dongosolo; ethnography ya kulankhulana imagogomezera kufunika kwa chikhalidwe; chiphunzitso cha zochita za kulankhula chimasonyeza kuti mawu ndi zochita; kusanthula zokambirana kumavumbula kukhazikika kwa chikhalidwe pamlingo wochepa; pragmatics ndi indexicality zimafotokoza matanthauzo a chikhalidwe omwe amapezeka mu zisankho za chilankhulo; malingaliro a chilankhulo amawonetsa miyeso ya mphamvu; pomwe magwiridwe antchito ndi kalembedwe zimasonyeza chilankhulo ngati njira yomangira umunthu.
Mwa kuphatikiza mfundo zimenezi, maphunziro a chilankhulo amatha kufufuza bwino zochitika za chilankhulo: kuyambira kukambirana kwa tsiku ndi tsiku mpaka mfundo za boma, kuyambira miyambo yachikhalidwe mpaka kulankhulana kwa digito. Pomaliza, kafukufukuyu akutikumbutsa kuti kumvetsetsa chilankhulo kumatanthauzanso kumvetsetsa anthu—njira yawo ya moyo, makhalidwe omwe amatsatira, ndi ubale wawo ndi anthu omwe amamanga.
