Ngā Rerekētanga i waenga i te Whakawhanaketanga Ōhanga me te Tipu Ōhanga i roto i ngā Akoranga Empirika
I roto i ngā rangahau ōhanga, he maha ngā wā ka whakamahia ngā kupu tipu ōhanga me te whanaketanga ōhanga i roto i ngā kōrero o ia rā. Heoi, i roto i ngā rangahau ā-pūtaiao—he rangahau e ahu mai ana i ngā raraunga me ngā inenga—he rerekē ngā tikanga, ngā tohu, me ngā pānga kaupapa here. He mea nui te mārama ki tēnei rerekētanga hei karo i te whakamārama hē: tera pea ka nui te tipu o tētahi rohe engari kāore i te ōrite te whanaketanga, i tētahi atu huarahi rānei, ka pai ake te kounga o te oranga ahakoa te puhoi o te tipu o te Hua Whenua Katoa (GDP). Ka matapakihia e tēnei tuhinga ngā ariā rerekē, ngā inenga, ngā tikanga rangahau, me ngā tauira o ngā kitenga ā-pūtaiao e wehewehe ana i te tipu ōhanga mai i te whanaketanga ōhanga.
1. Te whakamāramatanga me te arotahi matua
Ko te tipu ōhanga e pā ana ki te pikinga o te kaha whakaputa taonga me ngā ratonga i roto i tētahi ōhanga i roto i tētahi wā motuhake. I roto i te mahi, ka inehia te tipu hei pikinga o te GDP tūturu, te GRDP tūturu rānei (mō ngā rohe) i roto i te wā. Ko te arotahi matua ko te nui o te pikinga o te putanga ōhanga.
I taua wā, ko te whanaketanga ōhanga he tukanga whakarerekētanga hanganga me te whakapainga whānui ake i te oranga o te hapori. Ko te whanaketanga e aro nui ana ki "te pai o te whakapainga o te kounga o te oranga" me "te ōrite o te tohatoha i ngā painga ōhanga." Ko te whanaketanga e kapi ana i ngā āhuatanga kāore i te whakaatahia i ngā tatauranga GDP: te hauora, te mātauranga, te ōritetanga o te moni whiwhi, ngā whai wāhitanga mahi, te kounga o ngā umanga, te whakaiti i te rawakore, me te whakarerekētanga o te rāngai ōhanga.
I te poto, ko te tipu he mea tau (putanga), ko te whanaketanga ia he mea maha ngā taha (oranga me te hanganga).
2. Ngā tohu i roto i ngā rangahau ā-pūtaiao
Ko te rerekētanga matua ka kitea i roto i ngā tohu e whakamahia ana e ngā kairangahau.
Ngā tohu tipu ōhanga
I roto i ngā rangahau ā-wheako, ka inehia te tipu mā te:
– Te tere tipu tūturu o te GDP/GRDP (te toharite ā-tau, ā-tau rānei).
– Te GDP tūturu mō ia tangata (e whakamahia ana hei whakatairite i waenga i ngā whenua/rohe).
– Te hua (hei tauira, te putanga mō ia kaimahi, te hua tauwehe katoa/TFP).
He tino māmā te ine i tēnei tohu nā te mea e wātea ana ngā raraunga GDP mā ngā tari tatauranga.
Ngā tohu whanaketanga ōhanga
Ka whakamahia e te whanaketanga ngā tohu whānui ake, hei tauira:
– Te Tāurangi Whanaketanga Tangata (HDI): he huinga o te hauora (te roanga o te oranga), te mātauranga, me te kaha ōhanga.
– Ngā taumata rawakore me te hōhonutanga o te rawakore.
– Te kore taurite (hei tauira, te tauwehenga Gini, te ōwehenga Palma).
– Te reiti kore mahi, te reiti kore mahi, me te kounga o te mahi (ōkawa me te kore ōkawa).
– Te urunga atu ki ngā ratonga taketake: te wai mā, te akuaku, te hiko, ngā ratonga hauora.
– Ngā tohu hanganga: te nekehanga o te mahi mai i te ahuwhenua ki te hanga/ratonga, te kanorau o ngā kaweake, te uauatanga o te ōhanga.
– Ko te kounga me te oranga tonutanga o te taiao (ngā tukunga, te whakangaromanga o ngā ngahere, te kounga o te hau), e whakaurua haeretia ana ki ngā rangahau whanaketanga o ēnei rā.
Nā te mea he maha ngā āhuatanga o te whanaketanga, he uaua ake te ine: me whiriwhiri e ngā kairangahau ngā tauira e tika ana, me waihanga i ngā taupū whakakotahi, me whakamahi rānei i tētahi huarahi papaaho (he maha ngā tohu i te wā kotahi).
3. Ngā rerekētanga o te anga ariā me ngā whanaungatanga take-pānga
I roto i te ariā tipu (hei tauira, te tauira Solow, te ariā tipu taketake rānei), ko te arotahi ko ngā mea e akiaki ana i te putanga mō te wā roa: te kohikohinga whakapaipai, te mahi, te hangarau, me te hua. He maha ngā pātai a ngā rangahau ā-pūtaiao mō te tipu, "He aha ngā mea e whakatau ana i te tipu?" Kei roto i ēnei ko te haumi, te mātauranga, te tuwhera o te hokohoko, te pumau ōhanga whānui rānei.
I taua wā anō, ko ngā ariā whanaketanga (hei tauira, te panonitanga hanganga a Lewis, te huarahi āheinga a Amartya Sen, te ōhanga umanga) e aro nui ana ki ngā panonitanga ōhanga-pāpori matatini, tae atu ki te tohatoha, ngā umanga, me te kaha tangata. Ko ngā pātai empirika ana ka uru pea ki: "Ka whakaitihia e te tipu te rawakore?" "He aha ngā kaupapa here ka whakapai ake i te kounga o te oranga me te ōritetanga?"
Kāore te whanaungatanga i waenganui i ngā mea e rua e tūhonohono tonu ana. He maha ngā rangahau kua kitea:
– Ka taea e te tipu te āwhina i te whanaketanga mēnā ka waihanga mahi, ka whakapiki i ngā whiwhinga moni a te whānau, ā, ka tautokona hoki e ngā kaupapa here tohatoha anō.
– Heoi anō, ka taea hoki te "kore e whakaurua" te tipu mena ka aro nui ki ngā rāngai e nui ana te pūtea, ka puta he kore taurite, ka kino rānei te taiao kia kino haere ai te kounga o te oranga o ētahi tāngata.
4. Tikanga rangahau ā-pūtaiao: he aha te rerekētanga?
a) Ngā waeine tātari raraunga me te hoahoa
He maha ngā wā ka whakamahia e te rangahau tipu:
– Ngā raraunga whānui raupapa wā (hei tauira, kotahi whenua neke atu i te 30 tau),
– Ngā raraunga ā-rohe, ā-whenua rānei (hei tauira, 34 ngā kawanatanga mō ngā tau 10),
– Ngā tauira whakahekenga tipu.
Ka whakamahia hoki e te rangahau whanaketanga ngā panui, engari he maha ngā wā ka tāpirihia:
– Ngā rangahau ā-whare (mō te rawakore, te kai, te mātauranga, te hauora),
– Ngā raraunga whakahaere mō te rāngai hauora/mātauranga,
– Ngā huarahi aromatawai pānga (whakamātautau whakahaere matapōkere, rerekētanga-i-ngā-rerekētanga, taurite kaute hiranga) hei aromatawai i ngā kaupapa whanaketanga motuhake.
b) Ngā raruraru ine
He "mā ake" te ine i te tipu nā te mea he paerewa te GDP. He wero kei mua i te whanaketanga:
– Ka pāngia te rawakore e ngā rārangi rawakore me ngā tikanga,
– He mea pā te kore taurite ki te kounga o ngā raraunga whiwhinga moni/whakapaunga,
– He taupū whakahiato te HDI, nō reira he whakataunga paerewa kei reira mō ngā taumaha me ngā tohu.
c) Te raruraru o te hononga ā-ira
I roto i ngā rangahau tipu me te whanaketanga, he mea nui tonu te take o te hononga ā-ira: ka piki ake te tipu e te mātauranga, ka pai ake rānei te kaha o ngā whenua tere tipu ki te putea i te mātauranga? I roto i te whanaketanga, he uaua ake te take o te hononga ā-ira nā te mea he maha ngā rāngai o ngā wawaotanga, ā, he roa te pānga. Nō reira, he maha ngā wā ka whakawhirinaki ngā kairangahau whanaketanga ki ngā hoahoa whakamātautau-āhua hei whakarato i ngā whakamāramatanga hononga ā-ira pakari ake.
5. Ngā tauira o ngā hua whakamātautau e wehewehe ana i ngā mea e rua
Ko ētahi tauira empirika e puta pinepine ana:
1. Te tipu nui, te whanaketanga whakaroa
Ka taea e ngā rohe whai rawa taiao te tuhi i te tipu nui o te GRDP ina piki ake ngā utu o ngā taonga. Heoi, kāore i te rite te tohatoha o te rawa mena he nui te pūtea e hiahiatia ana i roto i te rāngai, ā, he iti noa ngā kaimahi e whakamahi ana. Nō reira, ka noho teitei tonu te rawakore me te kore taurite ahakoa te pikinga o ngā tatauranga GRDP.
2. Te tipu taurite, te whakapai ake i te whanaketanga
He rohe kei reira te tipu ōhanga taurite, engari kua angitu rātou ki te whakapiki ake i te Tāurangi Whanaketanga Tangata (HDI) me te whakaiti i te rawakore nā te whakapaunga moni a te iwi whānui, te whakapai ake i ngā ratonga hauora me te mātauranga, me ngā kaupapa tiaki hapori kua arotahi pai.
3. Ko te panonitanga hanganga te mea e whakatau ana i te kounga o te whanaketanga
E whakaatu pinepine ana ngā rangahau ā-pūtaiao mā te neke i te mahi mai i te ahuwhenua oranga ki te hanga, ki ngā ratonga hou rānei, ka taea te whakanui ake i te hua me ngā utu, ā, ka tere ake te whakaiti i te rawakore. Nō reira, ehara i te mea ko "te ōrau o te GDP e tipu ana," engari ko "ko ēhea rāngai e tipu ana, ā, ko wai ka uru atu."
4. Ka whakaitihia e te kore taurite te pānga o te tipu ki te rawakore
He maha ngā rangahau kua whakaatu he tere ake te whakaiti i te rawakore e te tipu i ngā rohe he iti te kore taurite. Ina nui te kore taurite, ka nui ake te hua ka puta ki te hunga whai rawa, ka ngoikore ai tōna pānga ki te rawakore.
6. Ngā pānga kaupapa here: he aha te hiranga o ēnei rerekētanga?
Me i arotahi noa ngā kaihanga kaupapa here ki te tipu, tera pea ka arotahi rātou ki ngā haumitanga nui me te whakapiki i te putanga katoa. Engari me pātai atu anō mō te whanaketanga: ka hangaia he mahi e te haumitanga? Ka whakapai ake i ngā ratonga taketake? Ka whakaitihia te kore taurite? He pumau ki te taiao?
Nō reira, i roto i te whakamahere, me haere tahi ngā whāinga tipu GDP me ngā tohu whanaketanga pēnei i:
– te whakaiti i te rawakore,
– te pikinga o te HDI,
– te waihanga i ngā mahi kounga teitei,
– te whakaiti i te kore taurite,
– me ngā tohu mō te oranga tonutanga.
Mā tēnei huarahi ka whānui ake te aromatawai: ehara i te mea ko te "piki ake o ngā tatauranga GDP" anake te angitu ōhanga, engari ko te "pai ake o te oranga o te tangata".
7. Whakamutunga
I roto i ngā rangahau ā-pūtaiao, he rerekē ngā whakamāramatanga, ngā tohu, me ngā tikanga aromatawai i te tipu ōhanga me te whanaketanga ōhanga. Ko te tipu e aro ana ki ngā pikinga o te putanga katoa, e inehia ana e te GDP/GRDP tūturu. Ko te whanaketanga e aro ana ki ngā huringa o te oranga me te hanganga ōhanga whānui, e inehia ana e te Tāurangi Whakawhanaketanga Tangata (HDI), te rawakore, te kore taurite, te kounga o te mahi, te urunga atu ki ngā ratonga taketake, me te pumau.
He hononga kei waenganui i a rāua, engari kāore i te ōrite. Ko te tipu tētahi wāhanga o te whanaketanga, ehara i te mea he taurangi mōna. Nō reira, me whai whakaaro ngā rangahau ā-wheako me ngā kaupapa here tūmatanui pakari ki ngā mea e rua i te wā kotahi: te whai i te tipu tere, engari kia whānui, kia taurite, kia pumau hoki.
Ki te hiahia koe, ka taea e au te āwhina i a koe mā te tāpiri i tētahi rārangi pukapuka (hei tauira, a Todaro & Smith, Sen, Barro, Solow, ngā tuhinga whakarerekētanga hanganga rānei) me ngā tauira o ngā hoahoa taurangi me ngā tauira whakatauira mō ngā rangahau ā-pūtaiao i te taumata porowini/takiwā.
